Cocoa-producing Regions Research Articles

Does fertiliser use improve household welfare? Evidence from Ghana’s cocoa industry

ABSTRACTThis article analyses welfare impacts of fertiliser adoption using data collected from 838 cocoa farm households in the four key cocoa-producing regions in Ghana. Using propensity score matching (PSM), the study indicates that application of fertiliser leads to significant gains in farm yields, farm income, consumption expenditure, consumption expenditure per capita, and value of productive farm assets. The article concludes that cocoa-specific programmes such as Cocoa High Technology (Cocoa Hi-tech), initiated to intensify the application of improved farm technologies such as fertiliser, should be strengthened through effective and efficient management systems.

Assessment of the Diversity of Lactic Acid Bacteria Involved in Cocoa Fermentation of Six Main Cocoa Producing Regions of Côte d’ivoire

Assessment of the Diversity of Lactic Acid Bacteria Involved in Cocoa Fermentation of Six Main Cocoa Producing Regions of Côte d’ivoire

Screening of Thermotolerant Acetic Acid Bacteria Involved in Cocoa Fermentation in Six Major Cocoa Producing Regions in Côte d’Ivoire

Screening of Thermotolerant Acetic Acid Bacteria Involved in Cocoa Fermentation in Six Major Cocoa Producing Regions in Côte d’Ivoire

Diversity of Yeasts Involved in Cocoa Fermentation of Six Major Cocoa-Producing Regions in Ivory Coast

Cocoa beans (Theobroma cacao L.) are the raw material for chocolate production. Fermentation of cocoa pulp is crucial for developing chocolate flavor precursors. This fermentation is led by a succession of complex microbial communities where yeasts play key roles during the first stages of the process. In this study, we identified and analyzed the growth dynamics of yeasts involved in cocoa bean fermentation of six major cocoaproducing regions in Ivory Coast. A total of 743 yeasts were isolated, and were identified by sequencing of D1/D2 regions of 26S rDNA gene. These isolates included 11 species with a predominance of Pichia kudriavzevii (44,81 %), Pichia kluyveri (20,99 %) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (18,97 %) respectively. In addition, the length polymorphism of the genetic marker ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 and PCR-RFLP analysis revealed an intraspecific diversity within the three-main species involved in cocoa fermentation of six major local regions in Ivory Coast. This intraspecific diversity could be exploited for selecting appropriate starter cultures.

Adoption of agrochemical management practices among smallholder cocoa farmers in Ghana

This study explores smallholder cocoa farmers’ adoption decisions of agrochemical inputs in the Ghanaian cocoa industry using farm-level data collected from a sample of 838 farm households in four cocoa producing regions. Multivariate probit and Tobit models were used to examine the determinants of agrochemical inputs adoption and the extent of adoption, respectively. The result of the study showed that agrochemical management practices are complementary and thus the adoption of an agrochemical input is conditional on the adoption of others. Different household characteristics, household assets, institutional variables, and the perception of soil fertility status and the incidence of pests and diseases influence the adoption of individual agrochemical inputs. Furthermore, the result of the study showed that intensity (or extent) of agrochemical adoption (measured as farmers’ expenditure on agrochemicals) is also influenced by some socioeconomic and institutional variables such as extension services and farmers’ visits to demonstration farms. The implication of this result provides empirical guidelines necessary for farm-level programmes designed to improve adoption and intensity of adoption of agrochemical management practices in the Ghanaian cocoa sector.

Epiphytic bromeliads as key components for maintenance of ant diversity and ant–bromeliad interactions in agroforestry system canopies

Cocoa is produced in a wide range of land use systems, with the traditional shaded systems in Bahia (Brazil) as the most forest-like and biodiverse. The aim of this study was to evaluate the role of different cocoa agroforestry systems (AFSs) in maintaining community structure and interactions between ants and epiphytic bromeliads. The study was conducted at four sites in the cocoa producing region of the southeastern of the state of Bahia, Brazil, and comprised a native forest and three different cocoa AFSs. We found a total of 103 ant species associated with epiphytic bromeliads, with 83% of the species occurring in native forest canopy bromeliads also occurring in cocoa AFSs. The Cocoa Cabruca System (CAB) and the Rustic-Planted Shade System (RPS) had ant community structural components of biodiversity similar to those found in the native forest environment. The alpha and gamma diversity of ants found in Monospecific-Shaded Cocoa Agroforestry System (MCA) associated with Erythrina spp. shade trees were significantly different from the diversity found in the other AFSs and native forest. The presence of epiphytic bromeliads, regardless of the system and scale, maintained ant diversity in agroforestry system canopies similar to that of native forest. Using metrics derived from graph theory, we found a high level of specialization regarding ant–bromeliad interactions in native forest, with a gradual decrease in specialization with environmental homogenization. Agroforestry systems thus represent an important strategy for maintaining the structure of canopy-associated ant communities by enabling the establishment of numerous bromeliad species, thus contributing to the maintenance of ant diversity and services in a mosaic landscape AFSs and native forest.

Diversification of income sources for cocoa farm households: a case study of the Central West of Côte d'Ivoire

This paper is aimed at identifying complementary sources of income for cocoa farm households in the Central West of Cote d'Ivoire. Our methodology consists of four successive stages: 1) a need assessment of cocoa households and specificities of the study area through a participatory diagnosis in order to propose potential income generating activities; 2) a technical qualitative analysis of these activities; 3) an analysis of the profitability; 4) an analysis of their social acceptability. It appears that beekeeping and snail breeding is the most appropriate activities for this cocoa producing region. However, the results show that the lack of information and technical knowledge, the religious burdens and the high local illiteracy rate can constitute barriers to the implementation of IGAs. Finally, as future prospects, we discuss the opportunity to combine horizontal diversification and vertical diversification (especially cocoa processing) in order to give more added value to the sustainable cocoa production and to contribute to the industrial development of Ivorian economy.

Comparison of polyphenol, methylxanthines and antioxidant activity in Theobroma cacao beans from different cocoa-growing areas in Colombia

The aims of the current work were to study the influence of geographical areas on polyphenol and methylxanthine contents and the antioxidant activity in cocoa beans from different cocoa-growing areas of Colombia, and to evaluate the possibility of establishing a classification based on the geographical areas of the cocoa-growing regions. Eighteen cocoa farms located in eleven cocoa-growing areas were analyzed. The statistical analysis showed significant differences (p<0.05) in total polyphenol content (TPC), flavan-3-ol, epicatechin, catechin, caffeine and theobromine contents as well as the theobromine/caffeine ratio and the antioxidant capacity between some of the different sampled farms, showing a significant effect of the cocoa-producing region on these parameters. Generally, a proportional relationship has been proposed to exist between the polyphenol content with changes in altitude of plant crops, despite this, our results suggest that the lower the altitude, the more polyphenols, flavan-3-ols and epicatechin are produced by the cocoa plant. Results of the principal component analysis (PCA) indicate that caffeine content and the theobromine/caffeine ratio could serve as parameters to establish a cocoa bean classification according to the geographical area of the cocoa-growing regions.

On-farm implementation of a starter culture for improved cocoa bean fermentation and its influence on the flavour of chocolates produced thereof

Cocoa bean fermentations controlled by means of starter cultures were introduced on several farms in two different cocoa-producing regions (West Africa and Southeast Asia). Two starter culture mixtures were tested, namely one composed of Saccharomyces cerevisiae H5S5K23, Lactobacillus fermentum 222, and Acetobacter pasteurianus 386B (three heaps and one box), and another composed of L. fermentum 222 and A. pasteurianus 386B (seven heaps and one box). In all starter culture-added cocoa bean fermentation processes, the inoculated starter culture species were able to outgrow the natural contamination of the cocoa pulp-bean mass and they prevailed during cocoa bean fermentation. The application of both added starter cultures resulted in fermented dry cocoa beans that gave concomitant milk and dark chocolates with a reliable flavour, independent of cocoa-producing region or fermentation method. The addition of the lactic acid bacterium (LAB)/acetic acid bacterium (AAB) starter culture to the fermenting cocoa pulp-bean mass accelerated the cocoa bean fermentation process regarding citric acid conversion and lactic acid production through carbohydrate fermentation. For the production of a standard bulk chocolate, the addition of a yeast/LAB/AAB starter culture was necessary. This enabled an enhanced and consistent ethanol production by yeasts for a successful starter culture-added cocoa bean fermentation process. This study showed possibilities for the use of starter cultures in cocoa bean fermentation processing to achieve a reliably improved fermentation of cocoa pulp-bean mass that can consistently produce high-quality fermented dry cocoa beans and flavourful chocolates produced thereof.

Assessment of the yeast species composition of cocoa bean fermentations in different cocoa-producing regions using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis

The yeast species composition of 12 cocoa bean fermentations carried out in Brazil, Ecuador, Ivory Coast and Malaysia was investigated culture-independently. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis of 26S rRNA gene fragments, obtained through polymerase chain reaction with universal eukaryotic primers, was carried out with two different commercial apparatus (the DCode and CBS systems). In general, this molecular method allowed a rapid monitoring of the yeast species prevailing during fermentation. Under similar and optimal denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis conditions, the CBS system allowed a better separated band pattern than the DCode system and an unambiguous detection of the prevailing species present in the fermentation samples. The most frequent yeast species were Hanseniaspora sp., followed by Pichia kudriavzevii and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, independent of the origin of the cocoa. This indicates a restricted yeast species composition of the cocoa bean fermentation process. Exceptionally, the Ivorian cocoa bean box fermentation samples showed a wider yeast species composition, with Hyphopichia burtonii and Meyerozyma caribbica among the main representatives. Yeasts were not detected in the samples when the temperature inside the fermenting cocoa pulp-bean mass reached values higher than 45 °C or under early acetic acid production conditions.

Comparison of the bacterial species diversity of spontaneous cocoa bean fermentations carried out at selected farms in Ivory Coast and Brazil

To compare the spontaneous cocoa bean fermentation process carried out in different cocoa-producing regions, heap and box (one Ivorian farm) and box (two Brazilian farms) fermentations were carried out. All fermentations were studied through a multiphasic approach. In general, the temperature inside the fermenting mass increased throughout all fermentations and reached end-values of 42–48 °C. The main end-products of pulp carbohydrate catabolism were ethanol, lactic acid, acetic acid, and/or mannitol. In the case of the fermentations on the selected Ivorian farm, the species diversity of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and acetic acid bacteria (AAB) was restricted. Lactobacillus fermentum and Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides were the predominant LAB species, due to their ethanol and acid tolerance and citrate consumption. The levels of mannitol, ascribed to growth of L. fermentum, were fermentation-dependent. Also, enterobacterial species, such as Erwinia soli and Pantoea sp., were among the predominating microbiota during the early stages of both heap and box fermentations in Ivory Coast, which could be responsible for gluconic acid production. Consumption of gluconic acid at the initial phases of the Ivorian fermentations could be due to yeast growth. A wider microbial species diversity throughout the fermentation process was seen in the case of the box fermentations on the selected Brazilian farms, which differed, amongst other factors, regarding pod/bean selection on these farms as compared to fermentations on the selected Ivorian farm. This microbiota included Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus durianis, L. fermentum, Lactobacillus mali, Lactobacillus nagelii, L. pseudomesenteroides, and Pediococcus acidilactici, as well as Bacillus subtilis that was present at late fermentation, when the temperature inside the fermenting mass reached values higher than 50 °C. Moreover, AAB seemed to dominate the Brazilian box fermentations studied, explaining higher acetic acid concentrations in the pulp and the beans. To conclude, it turned out that the species diversity and community dynamics, influenced by local operational practices, in particular pod/bean selection, impact the quality of fermented cocoa beans.

Endophytic fungal diversity in Theobroma cacao (cacao) and T. grandiflorum (cupuaçu) trees and their potential for growth promotion and biocontrol of black-pod disease

The endophytic niches of plants are a rich source of microbes that can directly and indirectly promote plant protection, growth and development. The diversity of culturable endophytic fungi from stems and branches of Theobroma cacao (cacao) and Theobroma grandiflorum (cupuaçu) trees growing in the Amazon region of Brazil was assessed. The collection of fungal endophytic isolates obtained was applied in field experiments to evaluate their potential as biocontrol agents against Phytophthora palmivora, the causal agent of the black-pod rot disease of cacao, one of the most important pathogens in cocoa-producing regions worldwide. The isolated endophytic fungi from 60 traditional, farmer-planted, healthy cacao and 10 cupuaçu plants were cultured in PDA under conditions inducing sporulation. Isolates were classified based upon the morphological characteristics of their cultures and reproductive structures. Spore suspensions from a total of 103 isolates that could be classified at least up to genus level were tested against P. palmivora in pods attached to cacao trees in the field. Results indicated that ∼70 % of isolates showed biocontrol effects to a certain extent, suggesting that culturable endophytic fungal biodiversity in this system is of a mostly mutualistic type of interaction with the host. Eight isolates from genera Trichoderma (reference isolate), Pestalotiopsis, Curvularia, Tolypocladium and Fusarium showed the highest level of activity against the pathogen, and were further characterized. All demonstrated their endophytic nature by colonizing axenic cacao plantlets, and confirmed their biocontrol activity on attached pods trials by showing significant decrease in disease severity in relation to the positive control. None, however, showed detectable growth-promotion effects. Aspects related to endophytic biodiversity and host–pathogen–endophyte interactions in the environment of this study were discussed on the context of developing sustainable strategies for biological control of black-pod rot of cacao.

Landscape and farm scale management to enhance biodiversity conservation in the cocoa producing region of southern Bahia, Brazil

In southern Bahia, Brazil, large land areas are used for the production of cocoa (Theobroma cacao), which is predominantly grown under the shade of native trees in an agroforestry system locally known as cabruca. As a dominant forest-like landscape element of the cocoa region, the cabrucas play an important role in the conservation of the region’s biodiversity. The purpose of this review is to provide the scientific basis for an action plan to reconcile cocoa production and biodiversity conservation in southern Bahia. The available research collectively highlights the diversity of responses of different species and biological groups to both the habitat quality of the cabrucas themselves and to the general characteristics of the landscape, such as the relative extent and spatial configuration of different vegetation types within the landscape mosaic. We identify factors that influence directly or indirectly the occurrence of native species in the cabrucas and the wider landscape of the cocoa region and develop recommendations for their conservation management. We show that the current scientific knowledge already provides a good basis for a biodiversity friendly management of the cocoa region of southern Bahia, although more work is needed to refine some management recommendations, especially on shade canopy composition and density, and verify their economic viability. The implementation of our recommendations should be accompanied by appropriate biological and socioeconomic monitoring and the findings should inform a broad program of adaptive management of the cabrucas and the wider cocoa landscape.

Contribution of cocoa plantations to the conservation of native ants (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Formicidae) with a special emphasis on the Atlantic Forest fauna of southern Bahia, Brazil

By maintaining a forest-like structure, shaded cocoa plantations contribute to the conservation of ants that usually live in the soil, leaf litter or canopy of tropical forests. Here we synthesize the available information on the diversity and community structure of ants in shaded cocoa plantations in the Atlantic forest region of Brazil, compare ant assemblages in cocoa agroforests with forests and other forms of agriculture, and discuss how these shaded plantations contribute to the conservation of the ants in the Atlantic Forest region. We also discuss ants of economical importance and of special interest, including Camponotus, Dolichoderus, Gnamptogenys, Pachycondyla, Pseudomyrmex and other litter dwelling genera. We discuss the situation of the tramp ant Wasmannia auropunctata in the Bahian cocoa-producing region where it is considered as native, and that of the two cryptobiotic genera Thaumatomyrmex and Typhlomyrmex, as well as that of proven and possible endangered army ant and Ponerini species. A total of 192 ant species from four strata were found in extensive sampling of a cocoa plantation with a relatively simple shade canopy (comprised primarily of Erythrina). Species richness in the cocoa plantations corresponded roughly to that of low diversity native forests, and species composition of cocoa plantations was most similar to native habitats (forest and mangroves) while ant composition in other agricultural habitats was most similar to that of urban areas. Although occurrences of Wasmannia auropunctata were similar in cocoa plantations and forests, abundance of Thaumatomyrmex and Typhlomyrmex, generally thought to be rare ants, was relatively high in cocoa plantations. These results, from cocoa plantations with relatively simple shade, demonstrate the importance of cocoa for ant conservation in the Atlantic forest region of Brazil. It is likely that cocoa plantations with a greater number of vegetation strata and higher tree species richness (such as traditional cabruca plantations) provide even more important habitat for ants generally and for ant species of conservation concern.

Occurrence of Cacao swollen shoot virus in Litimé, the Main Cocoa-Producing Area of Togo

Cacao swollen shoot disease, first described from Ghana on Theobroma cacao in 1922, was identified in Togo in 1955 (4) in Kloto, a minor cocoa-producing area. Litimé is the main production zone in the country. However, its share of production has fallen from approximately 75% of national production in the 1980s to 55% currently because of aging plantations and new swollen shoot foci in this region that had previously been free of the disease. This disease is caused by Cacao swollen shoot virus (CSSV), of which the first isolate to be studied molecularly (Agoul) came from Kloto (1). Since then, the different cocoa-producing regions have been surveyed on several occasions and swollen shoot foci were detected for the first time in Litimé at the end of the 1990s. During 2000, symptomatic leaves were taken from trees which exhibited characteristic symptoms of the disease including swellings on fan branches and chupons, and red vein banding on young flush leaves. The existence of the virus was confirmed using immunosorbent electron microscopy (2) with a composite polyclonal Banana streak virus/Sugarcane bacilliform virus antiserum supplied by B. Lockhart and using polymerase chain reaction amplification with CSSV-specific primers (3). Degenerate primers for CSSV detection were designed in the 5' region (the first 350 amino acids) of open reading frame (ORF3) because this region of the CSSV genome was found to be highly conserved among available full-length CSSV sequences. An isolate from the Litimé area (Wobe 12) was sequenced completely (Genbank Accession No. AJ781003), revealing that it shared a nucleotide sequence identity of only 77% with Agou1. Since the initial observations, the disease has spread rapidly and approximately 60% of the plots in Litimé contain infected trees. Hence, there is an urgent need for a program to rogue infected trees and replant with tolerant material. Moreover, this situation is a threat to cocoa plantations in neighboring Ghana, where numerous eradication operations to control this disease have been launched.

Survey of Ghanaian cocoa farmer fermentation practices and their influence on cocoa flavour

A survey of 56 cocoa farms in Ghana was carried out during the 1986 main crop to assess the influence of fermentation practices (post-harvest pod storage, cultivar, weight of ferments, number of turns and timing, drying) on quality. Variations in the frequency of turning of the ferments was noted with cocoa-producing region and cultivar. Sensory evaluation of chocolate samples made from the cocoa beans indicated that a short pod-storage and fermentation with a single turn after three days produced the most acceptable cocoa. The acceptability varied by region with the Eastern region producing the most acceptable cocoa. As with acceptability, chocolate flavour significantly improved with a short pod-storage time. A composite sample was average in terms of its sensory characteristics, supporting the concept that blending facilitates the balanced flavour characteristic of Ghana cocoa.

The Herbarium of the "Centro de Pesquisas do Cacau" at Itabuna, Brazil

A history of the herbarium of the cocoa research center, located in the cocoa-producing region of southern Bahia, Brazil, is provided. The history includes geographic references to important collecting localities, descriptions of the vegetation types from which collections have been made, an annotated list of collectors who have worked in the region since 1965, and a summary of the activities of the herbarium. Maps of collecting localities and vegetation types of the region are also included.