Cockpit Simulator Research Articles

Simulating extreme environments: Ergonomic evaluation of Chinese pilot performance and heat stress tolerance

High-temperatures in the cockpit environment can adversely influence pilot behavior and performance. To investigate the impact of high thermal environments on Chinese pilot performance in a simulated cockpit environment. Ten subjects volunteered to participate in the tests under 40°C and 45°C high-temperature simulations in an environmentally controlled chamber. Measures such as grip strength, perception, dexterity, somatic sense reaction, and analytical reasoning were taken. The results were compared to the Combined Index of Heat Stress (CIHS). CIHS exceeded the heat stress safety limit after 45 min under 40°C, grip strength decreased by 12% and somatic perception became 2.89 times larger than the initial value. In the case of 45°C, CIHS exceeded the safety limit after only 20 min, while the grip strength decreased just by 3.2% and somatic perception increased to 4.36 times larger than the initial value. Reaction and finger dexterity were not statistically different from baseline measurements, but the error rate of analytical reasoning test rose remarkably. Somatic perception was the most sensitive index to high-temperature, followed by grip strength. Results of this paper may help to improve environmental control design of new fighter cockpit and for pilot physiology and cockpit environment ergonomics research for Chinese pilots.

Failure to detect critical auditory alerts in the cockpit: evidence for inattentional deafness.

The aim of this study was to test whether inattentional deafness to critical alarms would be observed in a simulated cockpit. The inability of pilots to detect unexpected changes in their auditory environment (e.g., alarms) is a major safety problem in aeronautics. In aviation, the lack of response to alarms is usually not attributed to attentional limitations, but rather to pilots choosing to ignore such warnings due to decision biases, hearing issues, or conscious risk taking. Twenty-eight general aviation pilots performed two landings in a flight simulator. In one scenario an auditory alert was triggered alone, whereas in the other the auditory alert occurred while the pilots dealt with a critical windshear. In the windshear scenario, II pilots (39.3%) did not report or react appropriately to the alarm whereas all the pilots perceived the auditory warning in the no-windshear scenario. Also, of those pilots who were first exposed to the no-windshear scenario and detected the alarm, only three suffered from inattentional deafness in the subsequent windshear scenario. These findings establish inattentional deafness as a cognitive phenomenon that is critical for air safety. Pre-exposure to a critical event triggering an auditory alarm can enhance alarm detection when a similar event is encountered subsequently. Case-based learning is a solution to mitigate auditory alarm misperception.

Who’s Driving? The Role and Training of the Human Patient Simulation Operator

Within the airline industry, where much of simulation-based education originated, cockpit simulators are operated by current or former pilots whose expertise ensures the authenticity of the training experience. As yet, identifying the most appropriate person to run a patient simulator has not been translated into healthcare. Furthermore, few training resources exist for those who must learn the intricacies of the relationship between patient simulators, simulation scenarios, and educational objectives. This article reviews literature related to the role, educational preparation, and training of the patient simulator operator and explores solutions to the uncertainty about the difference between simulator operators and technicians. Because simulators are operationally intensive and because scarce faculty may be best used to facilitate student learning within the laboratory, the tendency has been to use a variety of personnel to manage patient simulators. Recommendations for standardizing the role of the operator that are consistent with the pedagogical purposes of simulation are offered. Potential questions are posed, and methods for future work are discussed.

Transient effects of harsh luminous conditions on the visual performance of aviators in a civil aircraft cockpit

The aim of this work was to examine how harsh luminous conditions in a cockpit, such as lightning in a thunderstorm or direct sunlight immediately after an aircraft passes through clouds, may affect the visual performance of pilots, and how to improve it. Such lighting conditions can result in the temporary visual impairment of aviators, which may greatly increase the risk of accidents. Tests were carried out in a full-scale simulator cockpit in which two kinds of dynamic lighting scenes, namely pulse changed and step changed lighting, were used to represent harsh luminous conditions. Visual acuity (VA), reaction time (RT) and identification accuracy (IA) were recorded as dependent variables. Data analysis results indicate that standardized VA values decreased significantly in both pulsing and step conditions in comparison with the dark condition. Standardized RT values increased significantly in the step condition; on the contrary, less reaction time was observed in the pulsing condition. Such effects could be reduced by an ambient illumination provided by a fluorescent lamp in both conditions. The results are to be used as a principle for optimizing lighting design with a thunderstorm light.

Does Cognitive Lockup Depend on the Situation, on the Person, or on an Interaction of Both?

This paper focuses on investigating (a) whether cognitive lockup can be provoked in an experimental setup in a realistic, generic cockpit simulator and (b) whether the occurrence of cognitive lockup further depends on the pilot or on an interaction between the aviation situation and the pilot. To investigate these research questions, an experiment was conducted during which pilots aviated two scenarios. Both scenarios reflect an approach situation in which the second autopilot failed as a first event and the runway was changed as a second event. The main difference of the scenarios is the timing of the autopilot failure and the runway change: In the experimental condition, the events occurred later in time, which reduced the time frame available for the briefing. While aviating, the aircraft’s maximum deviation from the specified route was recorded. Statistical analyses showed that pilots were more drawn to cognitive lockup in the situation with more time-pressure resulting in a performance degradation in the aviation task. Aviation performance was further predicted by a significant interaction between the person and the situation, which shows a need to also consider person-related variables when explaining the occurrence of cognitive lockup.

가변형 비행시뮬레이터 조종실 개발

Reconfigurable Flight Simulator for an airborne tactical mission based on virtual reality technology is developed as a software configurable cockpit with computer display as virtual instruments. It can simulate F-15K, KF-16, T/A-50 class fighter and depending on simulated cockpit, control stick and throttle are replaceable. For effective immersion, Video See-Through type HMD is applied.

Aircraft Cockpit Distributed Simulation Based on Embedded Ethernet and PoE

Considering the complexity and decentralization of data acquisition and power supply for cockpit devices of flight simulator, this paper designs and realizes a distributed simulation system for aircraft cockpit based on embedded Ethernet and Power over Ethernet technology. A simulation scheme with many nodes of data acquisition and instrument control is adopted. Based on PoE technology, the power subsystem can supply DC power on the same cable that carries data. As a result, this greatly simplifies power wiring installation in the narrow cockpit while improving reliability. The design of aircraft cockpit simulation has been successfully used in certain type flight simulator. Through the actual system testing, the design has excellences of higher stability, expansibility and security.

Modeling the Control of Attention in Visual Workspaces

The present study developed and validated a stochastic model of overt attention within a visual workspace. Technical specifications and recommended practices for the design of visual warning systems emphasize the role of alert salience. Task demands and display context can modulate alert noticeability, however, meaning that salience alone does not guarantee attention capture. A stochastic model integrated elements from existing models of visual attention to predict attentional behavior in dynamic environments.Validation studies tested the predictions of the new model against scanning data from a high-fidelity simulator study and behavioral data from an alert detection experiment. The model accurately predicted the steady-state distribution of attention within a simulated cockpit as well as the effects of color similarity, eccentricity, and dynamic visual noise on miss rates and response times in the alert detection task. The model successfully predicts attentional behavior in complex visual workspaces with the use of parameter values selected by either the modeler or a subject matter expert. The model provides a tool to test the effectiveness of visual alerts in various display configurations and with varying task demands.

Effects of Talker Sex and Voice Style of Verbal Cockpit Warnings on Performance

The effects of talker sex and voice style of verbal cockpit warnings on performance were investigated to help make warning messages distinct from speech on the flight deck. Auditory warnings are used in aircraft to alert the crew to hazards and their associated levels of danger. Failing to comply with a warning has led to aviation incidents and accidents. Participants were required to monitor the auditory channel and identify the verbal warning while simultaneously performing a visual pursuit tracking task. A male and a female actor annunciated the warning words in three styles: monotone, urgent, and whisper. In Experiment 1, warning words were presented in quiet, and in Experiment 2, they were presented in a background of speech babble that simulated cockpit radio communication. Experiment 1 showed that the monotone and urgent styles resulted in the fastest identification response time (RT) regardless of the talker and listener's sex. Experiment 2 showed that the male talker annunciating in either the monotone or the urgent style resulted in the largest proportion correct and fastest identification RT regardless of the listener's sex. Both experiments showed effects of word semantics on performance. Effective use of speech parameters and word semantics can increase the saliency of verbal cockpit warnings. Potential applications of this research include improving the attention-getting capability of an alerting system, which could lead to increased warning compliance, potentially resulting in fewer incidents and accidents.

1P1-M01 片手による自動車の運転を支援するジョイスティックシステム

A joystick car drive system for wheelchair users is presented in this paper. The system enables handicapped person to drive a car with a single hand. The joystick operation in back and forth direction controls acceleration or deceleration of a car while that in left and right direction rotates a steering wheel to turn. The initial prototype of a steering wheel drive system is designed and built. The prototype is tested on a cockpit simulator by wheelchair users to investigate the realizability of the proposed joystick system.

Modèle d'évolution de paysages, application aux karsts en cockpit de Jamaïque

Landscape evolution model, example of cockpit karst terrains, Jamaica A model of cockpit karst landscape evolution is presented. After explaining implementation of dissolution processes of limestone in the landscape evolution model CHILD, we develop a model of limestone denudation based on epi karst theory processes. The model takes into account an anisotropic dissolution in space and time according to what is observed in reality or described by scenarios of cockpit karst landscape evolution. This model requires a fracture's network to take into account subsurface flow. Then, dissolution and thus fractures widening are computed and show a positive feedback between dissolution and flow. The relation between subcutaneous dissolution of fractures and denudation of the topography is introduced by means of an empirical equation associated with epikarst processes : the denudation is taken to be proportional to the dissolution in the subcutaneous zone. Simulated cockpit karst terrains are compared with real landscapes by means of morphometric criteria. Results of the model are very dose to reality which hence confirms the importance of anisotropic dissolution processes and above all could be a numerical validation of the epikarst processes to describe cockpit karst genesis.

Evaluation of Onboard Taxi Guidance Support on Pilot Performance in Airport Surface Navigation

Advanced Surface Movement Guidance and Control Systems (A-SMGCS) comprise a range of new technologies for both the flight deck and ground air traffic control and is supposed to enable increased safety and a more efficient throughput at presently highly congested major airports. A flight deck A-SMGCS module is the onboard guidance system TARMAC-AS. This module consists of controller pilot data link communication (CPDLC) and an electronic moving map (EMM), which also serves as a cockpit display of traffic information (CDTI). TARMAC-AS is evaluated in an investigation involving 49 commercial pilots who performed a series of approach, landing and taxiing simulation trials under varied visibility, which were completed in a fixed-base cockpit simulator. Results support the notion that an EMM + CPDLC + CDTI improve the effectiveness of taxi navigation. A potential negative impact of observed increased head-down times to the compelling TARMAC display on unexpected outside scene obstacle detection was not substantiated.

Characterizing Scan Patterns in a Spacecraft Cockpit Simulator: Expert Vs. Novice Performance

Operating a spacecraft is a complex and demanding task that requires years of training and constant monitoring of both navigation and systems parameters. By examining differences in scanning between “expert” and “novice” operators, we can develop cognitive models of scanning behavior or enhance training. In the Intelligent Spacecraft Interface Systems (ISIS) laboratory, we measure eye movements and record performance parameters in a part-task space shuttle cockpit simulator. We trained airline transport pilots (as our “novice” group) on fundamentals of flying an ascent (”launch-to-orbit”) in the space shuttle. We tested three levels of malfunctions occurring during a trial—none (nominal), one malfunction, or three malfunctions—on both pilots and astronauts (our “expert” group). Astronauts had fewer errors and faster reaction times. Eye movement analyses showed that both astronauts and pilots similarly modified their scan strategies depending on the flight segment and how many malfunctions occurred during a trial.

Enhancing Airport Surface Markings to Support Pilot Awareness About Runway Location

Enhancements to airport surface markings were developed to facilitate pilot awareness of the runway location and to increase the conspicuity of the holding position markings, see Olmos, Andrews, and Estes (2003). The marking enhancements were evaluated in a simulation and two field studies. In a simulation study, general aviation (GA) pilots as well as transport category pilots performed taxi operations using a cockpit simulator. The simulated airport surface included enhanced surface markings and the distance at which pilots detected the runway environment was measured under various conditions. The results indicate that marking enhancements were associated with an earlier detection of the runway in some but not in all conditions. Specifically, transport category pilots detected simple taxiway-runway intersections with enhanced markings earlier than with current markings. No such perceptual advantage was found for GA pilots or at complex intersections. Most pilots, however, subjectively preferred the marking enhancements over the current marking standard. These positive evaluations of enhanced markings were confirmed by two field demonstrations where two sets of enhanced markings were implemented at two US airports. Pilots perceived the benefits of the marking enhancements to depend on pilot experience, familiarity with the airport, aircraft type, and knowledge about the marking enhancements. For certain airport situations, the enhanced markings in the hold-short environment of runways can be expected to aid pilot awareness about the runway location.

Adaptive Information Fusion for Situation Awareness in the Cockpit

Evidence is provided pointing to potential caveats associated with the use of information fusion techniques in the cockpit. Six pilots each with a minimum of ten years flight experience completed a series of missions using a simulated future jet cockpit. Each trial required a pilot to guide their aircraft towards a fixed location. The pilot was required to estimate the position of this location both during and five minutes after the flight. Different types of fusion were manipulated with regard to the information presented on a touchscreen display — Fused, Fused Drill-Down, and UnFused. Data suggested that information fusion alone can have negative consequences for both task performance and subsequent recollection of information. It is argued that reductions in system transparency and transfer-appropriate processing may account for these findings.

Towards an explanatory, predictive account of awareness

In this paper we investigate the utility of an explanatory and predictive account of awareness in the (re)design of complex human–computer interaction. We start by describing both the wider field of human computer awareness and the specific sub-field of situation awareness in the aviation domain. We also discuss the wide range of observations and descriptions, which detail both success and failure in the acquisition, maintenance and repair of such awareness across a range of domains. Next, we assert the need for an explanatory and predictive model of the phenomenon in the search for a reduction in the breakdowns reported and propose such a model. We then go on to investigate the utility of our model as a guide for design through the discussion of a recent experiment involving manipulations of an animated warning signal on a simulated cockpit control panel. Our results show initial support both for the model and for our earlier assertion of its utility. We conclude that our composite view of awareness yields practical benefit in the design of human computer awareness support and provides a basis for future research.

Co-Operative Conflict Resolution: An Experimental Validation of Aircraft Self-Separation in a Classroom Environment

Aircraft self-separation is a concept in which the responsibility for aircraft separation is shifted from the ground to the air. To make self-separation possible the aircraft is equipped with an Airborne Separation Assurance System (ASAS). It is thought that with ASAS both capacity and safety will be improved. This article reviews an experiment in which the concept was tested using 24 pilots at the same time, flying together using PC-based simulators in a computer network. Results showed that separation can be maintained, even in extreme situations. Results also demonstrated that the pilot models used in computer simulation show behavior very similar to that of pilots in cockpit simulators. Finally, results also showed that in this simulation, pilot workload due to the extra task of maintaining separation is low. Competitive "gaming" among aircraft was not evident.

Design and construction of a bobsled driver training simulator

A bobsled simulator has been designed and fabricated which consists of three primary subsystems: a graphics workstation, a motion control system, and an enclosed bobsled cockpit. The simulated track surface shape is obtained from construction specifications and approximated by a bicubic spline. A graphics workstation integrates the equations of motion in response to measured driver steering signals and calculates the trajectory of the bobsled in real time. A graphical representation of the driver’s view of the track is displayed on a cockpit-mounted monitor. Roll angle and steering force feedback are calculated and a motion control system rolls the simulator cockpit in synchronisation with the monitor graphics and provides force feedback through the steering system. This simulator serves dual purposes: first, to aid in training the United States Bobsled Team, and second, to serve as a tourist attraction/ride to generate interest in the sport.

Evaluation of a Formal Methodology for Developing Aircraft Vertical Flight Guidance Training Material

Aircraft automation, particularly the automation surrounding vertical navigation, has been cited as an area of training difficulty and a source of confusion during operation. A number of incidents have been attributed to a lack of crew understanding of what the automation is doing. This paper describes the translation of information from a formal methodology used in design of an automated vertical guidance system to a training package, and an experiment that tested the new training. This study is part of a larger project to improve the recognition and understanding of the “objectives and behaviors” of automated systems through a formal methodology. The formal method, referred to as the operational procedures methodology, integrates the design of the system with the design of the training and display information requirements for that system (Sherry, 1995). The study utilized a training package designed to teach the vertical guidance portion of the Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA), as seen in normal operations of the Boeing MD-11. The results of the study showed that this type of training can be successfully delivered via a computer based training device. Additionally, a study in a full cockpit simulator showed that the training, coupled with the new display, provided significantly less errors on a simulated flight, although the training alone did not provide significantly better performance.

Can 3-D Auditory Warnings Enhance Helicopter Cockpit Safety?

The design and use of 3-D auditory warning signals can potentially enhance helicopter cockpit safety. A study was conducted to determine how quickly helicopter pilots could respond to helicopter malfunction warning signals in a simulated cockpit environment when four different signal functions (fire in left engine, fire in right engine, chips in transmission, shaft-driven compressor failure) were presented in three different presentation modes (visual only, visual plus 3-D auditory speech signals, visual plus 3-D auditory icons). The dependent variable was pilot response time to the warning signal, from the time of signal onset to the time that the pilot manipulated the collective control in the correct manner. Subjects were 12 U.S. Army pilots between the ages of 18 and 35 who possessed hearing and visual acuity within thresholds acceptable to the U.S. Army. Results indicated that signal presentation was the only significant effect. Signal function and the signal presentation x signal function interaction were not significant. Post hoc test results indicated that pilot response time to the visual signals supplemented with 3-D audio speech or auditory icon signals was significantly shorter than that to visual signals only. The data imply that 3-D audio speech and auditory icon signals provide a safe and effective mode of warning presentation in the helicopter cockpit.