Coccidial Infection Research Articles

Hepatoprotective Effect of Nano Selenium Derived from Neem Leaf Extracts against Infection with Eimeria papillata in C57BL/6 Mice

Background Coccidiosis is considered a protozoan disease affecting wild and domestic animal species which leads to economic losses. Regarding drug resistance, scientists are focused on alternative sources rather than coccidiostats with fewer side effects. Recently, nanotechnology has been a new trend against parasitic infections by manipulating atoms and molecules at the nanoscale. Purpose This study assessed the hepatoprotective effects of biosynthesized nano selenium (BSN) derived from Azadirachta indica leaf extracts on biological, biochemical, and oxidative stress markers in mice infected with Eimeria papillata. Methods The formation of nano selenium was achieved using leaf extract from A. indica, and their morphology and size were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Twenty-five male C57BL/6 mice were divided into five groups, with five mice in each group. The first group received distilled water, while the second group was administered 0.5 mg/kg of BSN. The third, fourth, and fifth groups were infected with the parasite’s oocysts. For 5 days, the fourth group received BSN (0.5 mg/kg), and the fifth group was treated with amprolium (120 mg/kg). Oocyst shedding was assessed on day 5 post-infection (p.i.). After sacrificing the mice, the liver and blood from each mouse were collected and processed for histological, biochemical, and oxidative damage analyses. Results Oocyst shedding in the feces of mice decreased following oral treatment with BSN. Eimeria infection reduced feed consumption to 31.44%, but this increased to 45.57% after BSN treatment. The infection caused significant liver damage, as evidenced by pathological changes and a notable increase in liver function parameters, including glutamic-pyruvic transaminase (ALT), glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and direct bilirubin. These parameters improved after treatment with BSN. Additionally, Eimeria infection disrupted nutrient homeostasis. Levels of soluble proteins and carbohydrates in the liver tissue decreased, while blood glucose and total protein levels increased. Treatment with BSN in mice infected with E. papillata significantly improved nutrient homeostasis. Our research also demonstrated that BSN significantly reduced levels of nitric oxide (NO) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), while increasing levels of catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) to help mitigate oxidative damage during Eimeria infection. Conclusion Our findings demonstrate that BSN has a significant in vivo hepatic response against murine coccidiosis and could be valuable as a coccidiostat in treating the disease.

Impact of sodium alginate hydrogel containing bacteriophage peptides that specifically bind to the EtCab protein on the inhibition of Eimeria tenella infection

Avian coccidiosis, caused by the protozoan Eimeria, leads to significant economic losses for the poultry industry. In this study, bacteriophages that specifically bind to the calcium-binding protein (EtCab) of Eimeria tenella were selected using a biopanning process with a pIII phage display library. The recombinant EtCab protein served as the ligand in this selection process. The binding ability of target phages to the EtCab protein or E. tenella sporozoites was evaluated. The role of peptides corresponding to target phages in inhibiting the invasion of E. tenella sporozoites into cells was analysed using flow cytometry. Subsequently, the phages were encapsulated in sodium alginate to protect them from degradation in gastric fluid, which has a low pH value. Chickens were orally administered both microencapsulated and non-microencapsulated phages, and the protective effects against E. tenella infection were assessed. The binding mechanism of these peptides to the EtCab protein was investigated through in silico analysis. The results indicated that three specific phages (Y, G, and V) could bind effectively to recombinant EtCab protein as well as to sporozoite proteins. All three peptides, particularly Y and G, demonstrated significant inhibition of sporozoite invasion into cells in vitro. Additionally, oral administration of the encapsulated phages Y and G provided a higher level of protection against Eimeria infection compared to encapsulated phage V and the unencapsulated phages. Molecular docking studies revealed that three peptides, particularly Y and G, efficiently bind to the EtCab protein through hydrogen bonds. This study provides a reference for developing small molecular drugs targeting coccidiosis.

Effects of fermented Artemisia annua on the intestinal microbiota and metabolites of Hu lambs with naturally infected with Eimeria spp.

Sheep coccidiosis could disturb the balance of intestinal microbiota, causing diarrhea, and even death in lambs. Chemical drugs are the primary method of treating sheep coccidiosis, but their use will bring drug resistance, toxic side effects, drug residues, and other problems. Chinese herbal medicines are investigated as alternative methods for controlling coccidian infections. In this study, the effect of fermented Artemisia annua (FA) on oocysts per gram (OPG), average daily gain (ADG), and expression of inflammatory factors were investigated in lambs that were naturally infected with coccidia. The results showed that the FA had similar anti-coccidiosis effect to the original drug, while the FA demonstrated a more significant effect on weight gain, and a better ability to reduce the inflammatory response compared to the unfermented drug during the treatment period (P < 0.05). Furthermore, High-throughput sequencing technology was used to study the effects of FA on intestinal microbiota, and fecal metabolites of naturally infected lambs. The species richness of intestinal microbiota of lambs was significantly improved by FA. The abundance of bacteria unclassified_Muribaculaceae, and UCG_005 were increased by fermentation of A. annua. The abundance of bacteria Escherichia_Shigella, unclassified_Clostridia_UCG_014, and Alistipes was reduced. The prevention, and treatment of coccidiosis by fermentation of A. annua may also be related to a series of metabolites affected by intestinal microbiota, including artemisinin, Lysyl-Proline, and TRP-tyrosine. FA was found to have superior anti-coccidiosis, anti-inflammatory, and weight gain effects compared to the original Artemisia annua. Intestinal microbes and metabolites such as unclassified_Muribaculaceae, UCG-005, and Artemisinin were identified, suggesting their potential significance. Alistipes was proposed as a biomarker for predicting intestinal coccidia outbreak risk in lambs, pending further validation. The correlation between microbiota, and metabolites may provide new insights into pathogenic changes associated with Eimeria spp.

Synergistic impact of Salmonella typhimurium and Eimeria spp. coinfection on turkey poults: Growth performance, salmonella colonization, and ceca microbiota insights.

Salmonella contamination in poultry products is a significant concern due to its potential to cause severe economic losses and public health problems. On the other side, coccidiosis is induced by Eimeria (E.) species. involves the destruction of host intestinal epithelial cells and subsequent invasion of pathogens, resulting in performance reduction and enhanced pathogen infection in poultry and economic losses for the poultry industry. A study was conducted to evaluate the impact of Eimeria infection and Salmonella typhimurium (ST) on growth performance, Salmonella colonization, and ceca microbiota in turkey poult. A total of 420 one-day-old male turkey poults were randomly allocated into six treatments, with five replicated cages for each treatment, over a 21-day experimental period. The study followed a 2 × 3 factorial design. Treatments consisted of NC, negative control without any challenge; T1, challenged with 8000 oocysts of E. meleagrimitis and E. adenoeides at d 8; T2, challenged with 16,000 oocysts of E. meleagrimitis and E. adenoeides at d 8; T3, challenged with nalidixic acid-resistant Salmonella typhimurium (ST) at d 0; T4, challenged with ST at d 0 and 8000 oocysts of E. meleagrimitis and E. adenoeides at d 8; T5, challenged with ST at d 0 and 16,000 oocysts of E. meleagrimitis and E. adenoeides at d 8. The Eimeria challenge groups significantly reduced the BW compared to the non-challenge group (P < 0.001). The challenged groups decreased FI during 9-14 days of age (P < 0.01). Salmonella typhimurium did not affect BW entire trial period (P > 0.05). Gut permeability (GP) increased in the challenge groups compared to the NC group (P < 0.001). Both ST and Eimeria significantly decreased superoxide dismutase (SOD) in the liver (P < 0.01). The challenge groups had lower villus height (VH) and higher crypt depth (CD) compared to the NC group, resulting in decreased VH:CD ratio in the duodenum and jejunum (P < 0.01). The groups T1, T2, and T4 had significantly higher fat deposition than the NC group (P < 0.05). The coinfected groups (T4 and T5) had higher salmonella colonization in the spleen compared to the ST-infected group (T3, P < 0.05). The ST challenge significantly decreased alpha diversity, including pielou evenness and Shannon entropy (P < 0.05). The Proteobacteria phylum and Enterobacteriaceae family significantly increased in T5 compared to the NC, T1, T2, and T3 (P < 0.05). In conclusion, Eimeria infection negatively impacted growth, gut health, intestine barrier integrity, and histology, while Salmonella had a milder effect on performance. Coinfection with Salmonella and Eimeria spp. led to changes in gut microbiota and increased liver Salmonella colonization and fat deposition in turkey poults.

Age and season dynamic dependence of Eimeria infection of calves in Azerbaijan

The article talks about the conducted research on the infection of calves with eimeriosis depending on the age and seasons of the year in livestock farms located in Khachmaz and Shabran regions of Guba-Khachmaz economic region, also Bilasuvar and Hajigabul regions of Shirvan-Salyan economic regions. During the researches were studied spread of eimeria parasitizing on calves in farms depending on the seasons and the age of the animals. Depending on the age eymeriosis infection were determined 33.3% in Khachmaz region, 25.0% in Shabran region, 15.2% in Bilasuvar region, and 21.2% in Hajigabul region. As a result of examinations carried out in calves according to the seasons of the year was found infection eimeria: 38.1% in spring, 9.5% in summer, 28.6% in autumn, 14.3% in winter in Khachmaz region; 27.8% in spring, 5.6% in summer, 16.7% in autumn, 11.1% in winter in Shabran region; 30.4% in spring, 4.3% in summer, 17.4% in autumn, 8.7% in winter in Bilasuvar region; 21.1% in spring, no infection in summer, 15.8% in autumn, 5.3% in winter in Hajigabul region. The presence of factors (temperature, moisture, oxygen) necessary to the development of Eimeria oocysts in spring and autumn has a positive, and the decrease in air temperaturse in winter has a negative effect on the development of Eimeria oocysts.

Ameliorative effect of Aloe vera supplementation on the growth indices, intestinal health and oocysts shedding under an experimentally challenged with coccidia in Japanese quails

Coccidia poses significant challenges to poultry farming, impacting productivity and welfare. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of Aloe vera supplementation in managing coccidial infection in quails. A total of 360 one-day-old quails chicks were divided into five groups (six replicates with twelve birds per replicate) and challenged with mixed sporulated oocysts of Eimeria species (E. tenella, E. nicatrix, E. maxima, E. mitis). The groups included a positive control (infected, untreated), negative control (uninfected, untreated), and three treatment groups: Amprolium (1 g/l water), Aloe vera 2% (AV2), and Aloe vera 4% (AV4). Results demonstrated significant (p < 0.01) improvement in feed consumption, weight gain, and feed conversion ratio (FCR) in Aloe vera supplemented groups compared to the positive control. Histomorphological analysis revealed restoration of gut health in supplemented groups, characterised by increased villus height, crypt depth, and improved villus height-to-crypt depth ratio. Furthermore, mortality and lesion scores significantly reduced(p < 0.01) in 4% Aloe vera supplemented quails. Aloe vera supplementation showed promising efficacy in mitigating the negative impact of coccidial infection on quail performance and gut health. These results demonstrated that supplementing the diet with 4% Aloe vera effectively restored productive performance, as well as lesion score and microscopic intestinal histological features, in Eimeria-infected quails.

Prevalence of Coccidia in Backyard Poultry Chicken (Desi) from Khultabad Tehsil of Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar (MH)

Chicken coccidiosis is most dangerous problem in every Organized and Unorganized poultry farms and due to the coccidiosis disease major economic loss of poultry Keepers. Eimerian species is belongs to phylum Apicomplexa causes great infectious to chicken of various ages. Various species viz. E. acervulina, E.brunetti, E. maxima, E. mitis, E. necatrix, E. praecox And E. tenella of Eimeria causes coccidiosis in chicken. The present inspection undertaken to knows the status of coccidiosis from Jun-2023 to Sep-2023. 232 samples of dropping were collected of different indigenous chicken from different species reared in farm. Total 232samples were collected for examination. From 23 villages of KHULTABAD Tahsil of Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar district. Out of 232 samples 164 are positive for coccidial infection, the percentage prevalence being 70.68% was done

Epidemiological characteristics and prevention and control strategies for Eimeria spp. in sheep and goats in China: a systematic review

AbstractSheep and goat coccidiosis has a worldwide distribution and is an important disease on lambing farms. Infection with multiple Eimeria species can lead to severe intestinal damage in sheep/goats and economic losses on farms. Disease is a serious constraint to the healthy development of small ruminant farming. Studies published on PubMed, CNKI, VIP, Wanfang and the resulting references of selected studies were included. Risk factors affecting prevalence were analyzed and stratified by geographic location and climatic variables, age, sex, feeding model, season, sample year, breeds and environment. The total prevalence of coccidia in sheep and goats reached more than 60% in most regions, in which the dominant species in sheep were mainly E. parva, E. ovinoidalis, and E. parva and E. ahsata. East China had the lowest prevalence of coccidia infection in sheep (43.24%), and the dominant species were different from those in the other regions, mainly E. bakuensis and E. gonzalezi. Southwestern China and Central China had slightly less than 40.0% goat coccidia infection, and the dominant species in goats were mainly E. arloingi, E. aligevi, E. hirci and E. ninakohlyakimovae. Sheep/goats of different ages can be infected with coccidiosis, but lambs between 1 and 3 months of age are more susceptible to the disease. When lambs become infected, the pathogen spreads rapidly throughout the herd. Spring, summer and autumn are the seasons with a high incidence of this disease. Environmental pollution may be a significant factor in the development of coccidiosis in sheep raised in large-scale housing. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the species, morphology and geographic distribution of Eimeria species in sheep and goats, summary prevalence in different regions of China, risk factors affecting prevalence, and prevention and control strategies.

Biosynthesized Selenium Nanoparticles from Neem Leaves Extract Exhibit Antioxidant and Renal Responses During Eimeria papillata Infection

Background A protozoan disease termed coccidiosis is common worldwide and affects both domestic and wild animals. New alternatives must be discovered because traditional coccidiostats are becoming less effective. More recently, nanomedicine has been a better option for treating a wide range of diseases. Purpose This study aimed to investigate the role of biosynthesized selenium nano-particles (Bio-SeN) utilizing neem leaf extract on the outcome of renal damage caused by murine coccidiosis. Methods In this study, 25 mice were employed, and five groups (five mice/group) were formed: Group 1, this group is considered as control; Group 2, this group was noninfected and received Bio-SeN for 5 days; and Groups 3, 4, and 5: infected groups received 103 Eimeria papillata oocysts. Following that, for 5 days, Group 4 was administered Bio-SeN, while Group 5 was given amprolium (120 mg/kg). On the fifth day post-infection (p.i.), oocyst output, as well as body weight, was recorded, and mice were euthanized so that blood could be drawn for biochemical examination. The kidneys were also removed to prepare histological sections and homogenate for the determination of oxidative damage markers. Results The results demonstrated that by day 5 p.i., mice treated with Bio-SeN after infection with E. papillata had significantly reduced oocyst output in their feces. Body weight gain was significantly reduced by Eimeria infection to −6.07%, and it improved to −3.64% with Bio-SeN treatment. Significant degenerative alterations in the form of vacuolation and inflammatory infiltration in the renal tubules, together with the presence of erythrocytes in some blood sinusoids, were linked to infection. Furthermore, the infected mice’s protein and carbohydrate contents were disturbed by the infection. Urea, creatinine, and uric acid levels in the kidneys significantly increased as a result of the Eimeria infection. In the infected mice, these alterations result in oxidative damage. During the Bio-SeN treatment, all of these infection-induced parameters show significant changes. Conclusion Overall, our findings show that Bio-SeNs significantly exhibit a significant in vivo renal response against murine coccidiosis.

Evaluation of Herbal Anticoccidials on Growth Performance in Experimentally Infected Broiler Chickens

Avian diseases, especially coccidiosis, represent a significant threat to poultry production, demanding research into the use of herbal supplements in birds’ diets. So, the aim of this study was to assess the efficacy of selected herbal components in mitigating coccidiosis in broilers and to examine their overall impact on the productivity traits of broilers. A 35-day feeding trial was conducted with 1200 male ROSS 308 broiler chickens in two poultry facilities, one non-infected, using either usual coccidiostats (UC−) or 500 g/t herbal additive (consisting of Holarrhena antidysenterica, Ficus religiosa, Berberis aristata, Allium sativum, Embelia ribes, and Azadirachta indica; HA−) and the other intentionally exposed to Eimeria via drinking water at 7 days old, with corresponding control and experimental groups (UC+ and HA+). Dietary interventions significantly influenced broiler chicken body weight (BW) and average daily gain (ADG) throughout the trial, notably on day 21, with UC+ treatment yielding the highest values. Herbal supplements did not affect the feed conversion ratio (FCR) or liveability. Under infection, litter dry matter (DM) content differences were notable on days 14 and 21, favouring herbal additive treatments (HA− and HA+). Herbal supplements also impacted Eimeria presence in the duodenum and jejunum on day 21, with notable differences between treatments. Despite several limitations, the study reveals that herbal additions may effectively manage Eimeria infection and enhance litter quality in broiler production, since control treatments demonstrated improved development and anatomy.

Vaccination with formulations targeting Eimeria maxima and Clostridium perfringens conferred comprehensive protection using a dual-infection challenge model of necrotic enteritis.

With increasing regulations restricting antibiotic use in animal feed, the need for alternative strategies to prevent and manage necrotic enteritis (NE) has become imperative. As a result, developing effective vaccines has emerged as a top priority for broiler chicken health management. Coccidial infections are a well-established predisposing factor for NE, underscoring the importance of controlling coccidiosis to help mitigate NE outbreaks. This research aimed to investigate the protective efficacy of vaccine preparations containing Eimeria maxima elongation factor-1α and a multicomponent antigen cocktail of Clostridium perfringens, including a single collagen adhesion protein (CpCna) and two chimeric proteins: CpNA (NetB-Alpha-toxin) and CpFZ (Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase-Zinc metalloprotease). Two vaccine preparations-recombinant subunit vaccines and DNA vaccines-were developed to assess their immunoprotective effects, determined by relative body weight gain rate, lesion scores, survival rates, and antigen-specific IgY levels using a dual-infection NE challenge model involving E. maxima and C. perfringens. Broilers were administered two subcutaneous immunizations with either adjuvanted proteins or eukaryotic expression plasmids on Days 7 and 17. Chickens vaccinated with the five antigens exhibited significantly higher serum antigen-specific IgY levels, improved weight gains, zero mortality, and reduced lesion scores following the lethal dual-infection challenge. These results indicated that vaccine preparations targeting both C. perfringens and E. maxima represent a promising approach for controlling and preventing coccidiosis-induced NE in chickens.

Global prevalence of lagomorpha coccidiosis from 1951 to 2024: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

The global prevalence of coccidia infection in lagomorphs and potential risk factors were investigated through a meta-analysis of 149 studies published between 1951 and 2024. The pooled prevalence of Eimeriidae, Sarcocystidae and Cryptosporidiidae was found to be 66.0%, 8.0% and 6.1%, respectively. Rabbits and hares exhibited the highest prevalence of Eimeriidae at 63.1% and 71.8%, while pikas had the highest prevalence of Cryptosporidiidae at 17.1%. Countries located in the southern hemisphere exhibited the highest prevalence of Cryptosporidiidae (11.4%). The African Region had the highest prevalence of Eimeriidae (73.3%) and Sarcocystidae(14.6%), while the Eastern Mediterranean Region had the highest prevalence of Cryptosporidiidae(13.6%). Juvenile rabbits exhibited the highest prevalence of Eimeriidae (67.4%), while senior Rabbit exhibited the highest prevalence of Sarcocystidae(17.1%) and Cryptosporidiidae(13.1%). The prevalence of coccidia in intensively farmed lagomorphs showed a slight upward trend over time, nearly reaching statistical significance (R2=7.88%, coefficient=0.019, P=0.127). This suggests that the current intensive farming practices may be losing effectiveness in controlling coccidia infections, which is concerning. Among Eimeriidae in lagomorphs, Eimeria coquelinae showed the highest prevalence (68.4%), while E. magna was most frequently reported. For Sarcocystidae, Besnoitia spp. had the highest prevalence (31.3%), with Toxoplasma gondii being most frequently reported. Cryptosporidium cuniculus was both the most prevalent and frequently reported Cryptosporidiidae species (6.9%), suggesting it may be a major Cryptosporidiidae pathogen in lagomorphs. These findings highlight the differences in prevalence of various Eimeriida species among different lagomorpha genera. This diversity underscores the complex relationships between specific parasites and their host species, contributing to a more nuanced understanding of coccidiosis epidemiology in lagomorphs worldwide.

Prevalence and molecular identification of protozoan intestinal parasitic infections in cancer patients and a control group

BackgroundParasitic infections, especially opportunistic infections, are important issues for immunocompromised patients, including cancer patients. In this study, the prevalence of intestinal protozoan infections was investigated in Iranian cancer patients and a control group using microscopic and molecular methods.MethodsThis cross-sectional study was conducted on a group of 158 individuals with gastrointestinal and non-gastrointestinal cancers from hospitals affiliated with the Iran University of Medical Sciences, alongside 158 healthy individuals included in the control group. Stool samples were collected and examined using direct and concentration methods. The modified acid-fast staining method was used to detect coccidian parasite infections. DNA was extracted from the patients’ samples, and PCR and sequencing were performed.ResultsThe overall prevalence of protozoan infections was higher in the cancer patients (31.6%) than in the control group (12.0%), with the difference between the two groups being statistically significant (P = 0.0001). The study identified Blastocystis hominis as the most common protozoan, with a prevalence of 22.8%, followed by Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba coli, Dientamoeba fragilis, and Chilomastix mesnili, with rates of 2.5%, 1.3%, 1.3%, and 0.6%, respectively, in the cancer patients. Cystoisospora belli and Cryptosporidium sp. were found as opportunistic infections in 2.5% and 0.6% of the cancer patients, respectively. Blastocystis hominis, with a prevalence of 9.5%, followed by Giardia lamblia at 1.3%, were the most common parasitic infections in the control group. A statistical difference was found for Cystoisospora belli (P = 0.044) and Blastocystis hominis (P = 0.0013) between the cancer patients and the control group. Cryptosporidium sp. was confirmed as Cryptosporidium parvum, and Cystoisospora belli was confirmed by PCR sequencing.ConclusionChemotherapy, aside from corticosteroids, increases susceptibility to intestinal Protozoan infections in patients with hematological malignancies, particularly those with lymphoma and leukemia. The results indicated a higher risk of intestinal Protozoan infections, including opportunistic infections, in the cancer patients than in the control group. Cystoisospora belli and Cryptosporidium parvum were found to cause diarrhea in hematological malignancy patients undergoing chemotherapy.

Parasite-gut microbiota associations in wild wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus).

The mammalian gastrointestinal tract provides a habitat for multiple commensal and pathogenic organisms spanning all three domains of life. Both positive and negative interactions occur between gut inhabitants, with potential consequences for host health. Studies of parasite-microbiota associations in natural systems remain scarce, yet are important for understanding how parasite communities and commensal microbiota shape each other, and how these interactions influence host health. Here, we characterize associations between helminth and coccidial infections and gut microbiota profiles in a wild population of wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) over 3 years, using two complementary approaches. We first examined parasite-microbiota associations along the length of the gastrointestinal tract through destructive sampling. Then, in a larger non-invasive capture mark-recapture study, we assessed whether gut parasitic infections detected in feces predicted fecal microbiota diversity and composition. We found that while overall microbiota composition was not associated with infection by any common gut parasite species, microbiota richness was associated with gut parasitism in two ways: (i) infection by the trematode Corrigia vitta in the small intestine predicted higher microbiota diversity in the caecum; (ii) there was a negative relationship between gut parasite richness and fecal microbiota richness in the non-invasive study. As our results identified associations between gastrointestinal parasites and microbiota alpha diversity, a future experimental study in this tractable wild mammalian system would be valuable to definitively test the directionality of these interactions.

Plants, plant‐derived compounds, probiotics, and postbiotics as green agents to fight against poultry coccidiosis: A review

AbstractThe intestinal tract is the main place for animals to digest food and absorb nutrients, which also serves as the first line of defense against pathogens that invade the internal environment. Therefore, normal intestinal structure and function are essential for animal health. Poultry coccidiosis is an intestinal disease primarily caused by the parasitization of intestinal epithelial cells by protozoa of the genus Eimeria. The occurrence of coccidiosis not only compromises the intestinal integrity of poultry but also increases their disease susceptibility, thus posing a serious threat to the overall health and productivity of poultry. Nowadays, the primary methods for controlling and preventing coccidiosis in poultry are anticoccidial drugs or live oocyst vaccines. However, the use of the former may be associated with problems of resistance and drug residues, while the use of the latter may cause intestinal damage and significantly increase farming costs. For these reasons, it is critical to investigate green, safe, and cost‐effective natural alternative strategies such as phytochemicals and probiotics for controlling coccidiosis as well as mitigating the deleterious effects of coccidial infections in production. In this review, we aim to summarize the role, mechanisms, and therapeutic potential of natural products in the treatment of coccidiosis to lay a theoretical foundation for effective coccidiosis control.

Effects of Eimeria challenge on growth performance, intestine integrity, and cecal microbial diversity and composition of yellow broilers

The invasion of Eimeria causes damage to the intestinal barrier, nutrient leakage, and microbial imbalance in poultry. We aimed to investigate the effects of Eimeria infection on growth performance, intestinal integrity, and cecal microbial diversity and composition of yellow broilers. A total of 180 male yellow broilers were randomly divided into an unchallenged control and an Eimeria challenge treatment group within 18 floor pens (10 chicks/pen, 9 replicate pens/group). On day 10, 90 chicks received a cocktail of E. maxima, E. acervulina, and E. tenella oocysts (105/chick) to induce coccidial infection, and the other 90 received an aliquot of PBS. The Eimeria challenge resulted in increased bird feed consumption and FCR from day 11 to 21 (all P < 0.01). Higher fecal Eimeria counts, duodenal, jejunal, and cecal lesions were observed in the challenge group on day 12, 15, 15, 18 respectively (all P < 0.05). Furthermore, the infected birds had larger livers and small intestines, deeper villus crypt, and decreased expression of Claudin-1 on day 21 (all P < 0.05). The 16S rRNA sequencing indicated that alpha diversity (Sobs, Shannon, Simpson, Ace, or Chao) of cecal microbials was not affected by Eimeria challenge (all P > 0.05). However, the PCoA and LEfSe analyses indicated that the Eimeria challenge altered microbial distribution by decreasing the abundance of Firmicutes and enriching the abundance of Proteobacteria at the phylum level. At the genus level, Clostridia vadin BB60 and Lachnospiraceae NK4A136 group were reduced, while Escherichia-Shigella were enriched in the challenged yellow broilers (all P < 0.05). Correlation analyses demonstrated that the birds with higher Lachonospiraceae NK4A136 group and Clostridia vadin BB60, and lower Escherichia-Shigella in their cecal content gained more BW and reached a lower FCR from day 11 to 21 (all P < 0.05). In conclusion, Eimeria infection compromised feed efficiency of yellow broilers by damaging intestinal barrier and shifting cecal microbiota towards colonizers associated with poor performance. Restoring the dysbiotic microbiome could be a potential strategy for improving feed efficiency in yellow broilers under coccidial challenge.

Alteration in the Gut Microbiota of Chickens Resistant to Eimeria tenella Infection.

Avian coccidiosis, caused by several species of Eimeria, is a widespread and economically important poultry disease that inflicts severe losses in the poultry industry. Understanding the interplay between Eimeria and gut microbiota is critical for controlling coccidiosis and developing innovative treatments to ensure good poultry health. In the present study, chickens were immunized six times with a low dose of Eimeria tenella, resulting in complete immunity against Eimeria infection. The results of fecal microbiota transplantation showed that the gut microbiota of immunized chickens induced a certain degree of resistance to coccidial infection. To investigate the types of intestinal microbiota involved in the development of resistance to Eimeria, the intestinal contents and fecal samples from both immunized and unimmunized groups were collected for 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The results showed that, at the genus level, the abundance of the Eubacterium coprostanoligenes group, Erysipelatoclostridium, Shuttleworthia, and Colidextribacter was significantly increased in the intestinal content of immunized chickens, whereas the abundance of Eisenbergiella was significantly decreased. In fecal samples, the abundance of Clostridiaceae and Muribaculaceae significantly increased, whereas that of Bacillales significantly decreased. These findings will help to elucidate the interactions between E. tenella and the gut microbiota of chickens, providing a basis for isolating E. tenella-resistant strains from the gut microbiome and developing new vaccines against coccidiosis.

Neutrosophic set and optimized deep learning for classification of chicken Eimeria species: a practical solution for poultry industry

AbstractTo optimize infection control and bolster productivity within the poultry industry, it is imperative to accurately classify Chicken Eimeria species. There are several methods for determining Eimeria disease in chickens. Traditional methods involve watching for clinical symptoms, and macroscopic lesions, and studying the parasite’s biology and oocyst morphology. These methods are frequently time-consuming and labor-intensive, necessitating the manual collection and analysis of samples, which can be especially difficult in large chicken farms. Deep learning algorithms, on the other hand, provide automated, accurate, and non-invasive methods for the detection of Eimeria. This paper proposed a classification model for the automatic classification of chicken Eimeria species. The proposed model is mainly based on integrating neutrosophic set theory and InceptionV3 deep-learning architecture. Three primary phases make up the proposed chicken Eimeria species classification model: the data preprocessing phase, the neutrosophic image conversion phase, and the image classification phase. To address the issue of class imbalance in the adopted dataset and enhance the model’s generalizability, the random oversampling method, and data augmentation techniques are employed during the data preprocessing phase. The preprocessed data is considered to feed the neutrosophic set-based segmentation algorithm, where true, false, and intermediate subsets are extracted. Finally, the true subset is utilized to feed the optimized InceptionV3. To determine the optimal hyperparameter values for InceptionV3, a modified version of the Brown Bear optimization algorithm is proposed in this paper. To evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed model, a real benchmark dataset comprising images of different Eimeria species is adopted. The experimental results revealed that the proposed model offers a more efficient and accurate alternative to traditional methods and state-of-the-art models, enabling faster and more effective diagnosis and treatment of Eimeria infections. It achieved an overall accuracy, specificity, sensitivity, and F1-score of nearly 100%. Additionally, the results showed that the high performance of the proposed model can reduce labor costs and boost throughput, thereby enhancing economic viability even more.

Advanced chelate technology-based trace minerals reduce inflammation and oxidative stress in Eimeria-infected broilers by modulating NF-kB and Nrf2 pathways

This study investigated the effects of substituting inorganic trace minerals (ITM) with advanced chelate technology-based TM (ACTM) in broiler chicken feed on productive performance, metabolic profile, humoral immunity, antioxidant status, and modulation of NF-kB and Nrf2 signaling pathways in mixed Eimeria species exposure. The study involved 480 newly hatched male broiler chickens, which were divided into 5 treatment groups, each with 6 replicate cages and 16 chickens per replicate. The experimental treatments included an uninfected negative control group fed a basal diet with recommended inorganic TM levels (NC), an infected positive control group fed the same diet (PC), a PC group supplemented with salinomycin (SAL), and two PC groups in which the basal diet was replaced with 50% and 100% ACTM instead of inorganic TM (ACTM50 and ACTM100, respectively). All groups, except for the NC group, were orally challenged with mixed Eimeria species oocysts on day 14. According to the results, the PC group showed lower feed intake, breast yield, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol concentration, lactobacillus spp. counts, and serum IgG levels, but higher jejunal TGF-β expression versus the NC group. The broilers in the NC, SAL, and ACTM100 groups showed higher body weight gain, carcass yield, and TGF-β expression, but lower serum alkaline phosphatase activity, ileal E. coli count, and jejunal expression levels of IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-γ, Nrf2, and SOD1 compared to the PC group, with the NC group having the highest body weight gain and lowest IL-1β and Nrf2 expression levels. Furthermore, the administration of ACTM100 treatment improved feed efficiency, increased serum iron, zinc, manganese, and copper levels, enhanced total antioxidant capacity and different antioxidant enzyme activities, and reduced malondialdehyde concentration. In conclusion, complete replacement of ITM with ACTM effectively protects broilers from Eimeria infection, with similar positive effects to SAL treatment in terms of productive performance and anti-inflammatory responses and better antioxidant responses and mineral availability.

Comparison of the effect of anticoccidial drug, probiotic, synbiotic, phytochemicals and vaccine in prevention and control of coccidiosis in broiler chickens challenged with Eimeria spp

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of an anti-coccidiosis drug, vaccine, probiotic, symbiotic, and phytochemicals in the prevention and control of coccidia infection in broilers. A total of 525 one-day-old Ross 308 chicks were randomly allocated to 7 experimental diets with 5 replicates of 15 birds each in a completely randomized design. Experimental diets consisted of negative control (NC) without any additives and not challenged. The other 6 groups were challenged with mixed Eimeria and fed the basal diet with no additives (Positive Control, PC) or supplemented with Coxidine 100 (1 g / 1 kg), probiotic, synbiotic, Livacox T vaccine and phytobiotic additives based on the manufacturer's recommended dose. Body weight gain (WG), feed intake (FI) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were recorded weekly. Oocysts per gram of excreta (OPG) were determined on d 25 to 33 and 42. One bird per cage was euthanized to analyze lesion score and jejunum and ileum inflammatory genes expression. Coccidial challenge reduced WG (P < 0.05) during 15 to 28 d and vaccine treatment was more effective in improving WG and FCR on d 29 to 42 and 1 to 42 (P < 0.05) than other treatments. Birds in the PC group had higher (P < 0.05) OPG than NC group for all days and the vaccine treatment resulted in the lowest rate of OPG compared to other treatments (P < 0.05) at 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, and 33 d of age and overall average. Relative mRNA levels of IFN-γ, IL-1β and IL-10 were significantly upregulated among treatments under coccidiosis challenge in jejunum and ileum except for IL-1β expression in the ileum. In conclusion, based on the results of this study the individual characteristics of feed additives for the prevention of coccidiosis can be different depending on the type and source of feed additives, duration, and amount used, levels of oocyst inoculation and Eimeria types.