Coastal Vulnerability Assessment Research Articles

Coastal Vulnerability Assessment of Rapu-Rapu and the West Coast of Albay Province, Philippines

Coastal Vulnerability Assessment of Rapu-Rapu and the West Coast of Albay Province, Philippines

Coastal vulnerability assessment and identification of adaptation measures to climate change between Cape Matifou and Cape Djinet, Algeria

Coastal vulnerability assessment and identification of adaptation measures to climate change between Cape Matifou and Cape Djinet, Algeria

A multi-hazards coastal vulnerability index of the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia

In Southeast Asia, an increase of 20 million people in the coastal zone have accentuated the infrastructure risk. In Malaysia, littoral erosion due to seasonal monsoons can critically affect the coastal population and the country lacks practical plans to attenuate coastal erosion. In this study, a systematic coastal vulnerability assessment that covers 10 physical and 5 socio-economic variables has been conducted at 16 districts from 4 states. The aim is to highlight the most vulnerable districts with respect to a potential catastrophic event. Multivariate statistical analyses facilitated realistic and meaningful interpretations for optimal coastal zone planning. We show that socio-economic variables are extremely relevant in all states except in southern Terengganu because it faces a direct impact of monsoon waves. Gender composition was found to be the most dominant coastal vulnerability factor for two states: Kelantan and Terengganu (north) due to the abundance of women involved in coastal trade and commerce. Besides, agriculture indicates a primary concern in the district of Johor. The results were categorized from very low to very high of vulnerability. The northern states of the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia show very high to high vulnerability relative to the southern states, which reveal moderate to very low vulnerability. In statistical analysis, it is shown that there is a similarity of 81.25% between Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI) and Hierarchical Agglomerative Cluster Analysis (HACA). The authorities could utilize the findings of this study to forecast potential shoreline recession and establish adaptation measures to their coastal erosion adaptation plan.

Coastal vulnerability map of Jagatsinghpur District, Odisha, India: A satellite based approach to develop two-dimensional vulnerability maps

Assessment of coastal vulnerability has achieved a recent pace due to the increasing frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones and anticipated sea-level rise. The coastal vulnerability is often assessed along the shoreline and it fails to capture the inland physical variabilities. During storm surge, rivers and creeks act as carriers that induce inundation to the low-lying inland areas causing damage to the invaluable coastal livelihood. The study addresses this gap by developing an approach to assess the vulnerability of a coastal inland as two-dimensional vulnerability maps that captures the physical and demographic variabilities of the inland region. We have estimated the coastal vulnerability for Jagatsinghpur District, Odisha, along the eastern Indian coast using coastal landforms, elevation, creek order, proximity to the creek, proximity to the open coast as the physical variables. The analysis resulted in the classification of 31 villages as highly vulnerable that are mostly located over swales and low-lying areas adjacent to creeks. More than half of the villages are located away from the shoreline, which are not considered in the conventional method of vulnerability assessment. Further, we assessed the social vulnerability of the 31 vulnerable villages and the composite map identified 18 villages as highly vulnerable, out of which 9 villages are located away from the shoreline. As the drainage network carry the surge water landwards, the vulnerability estimation have to consider the physical and social characteristics of the coastal inland region. The study finds its applicability in identifying the vulnerable areas along the coast for disaster reduction under a climate change scenario.

Coastal Vulnerability Assessment for Future Sea Level Rise and a Comparative Study of Two Pocket Beaches in Seasonal Scale, Ios Island, Cyclades, Greece

The coastal zone may be considered as the location where the marine and land environments interact dynamically and coexist with human societies. Globally, natural and human systems are being severely threatened by the sea level rise related to climate change. The outcome between the dynamic relationship of coastal environments and marine processes, and the future sea level rise as predicted by scientific reports, is the vulnerability of coastal areas such as sandy beaches, pocket beaches and low-lying coastal areas. The current research aims to assess the coastal vulnerability of Ios Island, Cyclades, Greece for the next 100 years and to identify areas that are comparatively more vulnerable to future sea level changes. Moreover, the seasonal changes concerning sedimentological and morphological characteristics of two pocket beaches of Ios Island, Mylopotas and Magganari, are also examined. From the application of the Coastal Vulnerability Index, 92.37% of the total length of the coastline of Ios Island is characterized by a very low vulnerability as it consists of rocky shores and cliffs, while sandy and pocket beaches are characterized by a very high vulnerability. From the fieldworks and data processing, the seasonal changes mainly concern the seabed’s topography, the sediments’ texture of the collected sand samples, the foreshore and backshore topography, as well as seasonal shoreline displacement, using the Digital Shoreline Analysis System tool (DSAS).

A Multi-Scenario Land Expansion Simulation Method from Ecosystem Services Perspective of Coastal Urban Agglomeration: A Case Study of GHM-GBA, China

Balancing urban development and ecosystem conservation in the context of natural resource scarcity can provide scientific guidance for land use planning. We integrated research methods, such as ecosystem services (ES) assessment, coastal vulnerability assessment, multi-objective linear planning, and land use change simulation, to develop a new model framework for multi-scenario urban land expansion simulation based on ecosystem services. In relation to the land use scale and constraints, we simulated three types of scenarios in 2035, including a status quo continuity scenario (SCS), economic development scenario (EDS), and ecological protection scenario (EPS), to explore the ideal land use optimization strategies to enhance ES and land use efficiency. The results indicated that the scale of construction land under the three scenarios grew, and arable land and grassland had the largest losses. The continued urban expansion in the Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater Bay Area has already had a significant negative impact on ecosystem services and could result in a total ESV loss of USD 28.1 billion by 2035 if an economic-first development model is adopted. Based on the hotspots of urban construction land expansion in the ecological–economic priority game, we proposed a classification and optimization strategy for land use, including proactive restoration of damaged ecological spaces with high ESVs (Zhaoqing City and Huizhou City), optimization of green space quality and formation of ecological corridors (Guangzhou City, Shenzhen City, Hong Kong, and Macao), and implementation of natural resource conservation planning and spatial regulation in the urban–rural integration area (Foshan City and Dongguan City). This research framework scientifically allocates the “quality” of ecosystem values and “quantity” of natural resources and provides a reference for regional “bottom-up” territorial spatial planning.

Assessment of coastal vulnerability for extreme events

The necessity to protect coastal regions from sea-level rise (SLR) and extreme events demands a rigorous assessment of coastal vulnerability. The intergovernmental panel for climate change (IPCC) predicts that climate change will severely impact the coastal region, river systems, and urban infrastructures. The changing climate is observed to be increasing the frequency and magnitude of extreme hydrometeorological conditions, such as storm surges that adversely affect coastal areas by flood inundation. This study emphasizes the need to use extreme events and socio-economic data to evaluate the Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI) for planning and adaptation measures. Therefore, the present study utilizes spatially varying surge heights for improved estimation of the CVI, unlike the constant surge heights considered in the previous studies. For coastal adaptation measures, synthetic cyclones of different return periods, such as 20-, 50- and 100-year, are simulated using a hydrodynamic model to represent a range of risk and vulnerability in the estimated CVI. The proposed methodology for calculating the CVI is demonstrated by considering the Chennai coast in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. The use of spatial distribution of storm surges from hydrodynamic simulations makes the CVI more realistic. Such thorough assessments utilizing high-resolution CVI maps can help policymakers suggest appropriate measures for specific coastal zones, which are more devastatingly affected by shoreline erosion, SLR and storm surge. The vulnerability assessment indicates that great care is needed in the planning and adaptation of the coastal ecosystem to extreme events for the safety and well-being of coastal populations and infrastructures.

THE DECADAL CHANGES AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC STRESSES ON COASTAL AREA THROUGH REMOTE SENSING AND GIS TECHNOLOGY: A REVIEW OF PURI, ODISHA

Coastal areas of Odisha are vulnerable to climate change. Along the 480 km coastline most of the coastal areas are facing threats due to climate change. In addition to threats due to natural hazards, these coastal regions also face immense population and developmental pressures. The increase in the intensity and frequency of cyclones and accelerated sea level rise related to increased sea surface temperature have led to flooding, coastal erosion and shoreline retreat causing damage to coastal ecosystems and resources in these regions. Coastal areas are the key system for global sustainability. Coastal regions gained importance because of multiple uses, like high productivity of the ecosystem, highly concentrated population, industrial friendly, waste disposal, tourism, transportation, strategic planning in military and many more. These coasts are always in a dynamic state trying to change, and nature always works for maintaining the equilibrium. In this scenario, coastal management has become the important issue in past few decades. Thus, coastal vulnerability assessment methods have been developed to identify and manage vulnerable areas over the coast. In recognition to these risks, the present review, the main focus is on the coastal area of Puri beach- the Ballighai beach which is very close to Jagannath Mandir and Swargdwar. Proper planning with awareness and protection strategies for Indian coast must be taken swiftly by the coastal management and policymakers to safeguard coastal ecosystem and livelihoods. In recent years, there has been much focus on the coastal vulnerability assessments using various kinds of data. Most of the reported studies over Indian coast are based on Remote Sensing and GIS methods. Thus this review tries to explain the importance of remote sensing and GIS in estimating the effects of changing climate on coastal areas.

ASSESSING THE PHYSICAL CHANGES AND THE STRESSES ON THE COASTAL AREAS USING GEOINFORMATICS FROM SIPASURUBILI TO MOHANIPUR, PURI, ODISHA

Climate change occurs naturally besides it has increased after the involvement of human activities. The impacts are observed in agriculture, transport, forestry, maritime and coast etc. Majorly the impacts of climate change are observed on the agricultural sector and on the coastal sector. Most of the people residing near/on the coast are directly or indirectly relying on coast for their livelihoods, which in turn also has direct along with indirect impacts on the marine life. Coastal areas are one of the important key systems for global sustainability. These are the transition areas between land and sea. The activities have put the Indian coastal areas under threat along with multiple stressors like global climatic change and human interference. These stressors are driving vulnerabilities like sea-level rise, coastal erosion, frequent extreme events, and saltwater intrusion. In this scenario, the most important thing in the last two decades has been the coastal management. In the present research, the main focus is given on the coastal area of Puri beach which covers the coastline from Sipasurubili to Mohanipur. In recent years, there has been much focus on the coastal vulnerability assessments using various kinds of data. Keeping the applications of satellite based remote sensing and GIS in the study of the coastal area, this research tries to assess the impacts of humans and what are the various physical changes that have occurred in decades.

Coastal Vulnerability Assessment in Son Tra – Cua Dai region

The coastal erosion due to storm surge and unsustainable urban development in the central region of Vietnam has become increasingly in the last decade. It requires accurate coastal vulnerability assessments (CVI). The aim of this study is to propose (1) a new approach to classify the coasts and (2) the selection of appropriate criteria to assess the CVI index at the regional scale. Accordingly, the study has calculated the CVI index for the coastal area of Son Tra - Cua Dai region based on 5 coastal characteristic variables, 3 coastal dynamics and 4 socio-economic variables. The results show that more than 15% of the coastline of the study area has very high CVI values, especially in the coastal area of Hoi An. The coastal landscape with residential and tourist sites near beaches without protection forests has been strongly affected by storm erosion.

Shoreline Evolution and Erosion Vulnerability Assessment along the Central Adriatic Coast with the Contribution of UAV Beach Monitoring

Coastal erosion and its impacts on the involved communities is a topic of great scientific interest that also reflects the need for modern as well as cost and time-effective methodologies to be integrated into or even to substitute traditional investigation methods. The present study is based on an integrated approach that involves the use of data derived from UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) surveys. The study illustrates the long- to short-term shoreline evolution of the Molise coast (southern Italy) and then focuses on two selected beach stretches (Petacciato and Campomarino beaches), for which annual UAV surveys were performed from 2019 to 2021, to assess their most recent shoreline and morpho-topographical changes and related effects on their coastal vulnerability. UAV data were processed using the Structure from Motion (SfM) image processing tool. Along the beach profiles derived from the produced DEMs, the coastal vulnerability of the selected beach stretches was evaluated by using the Coastal Vulnerability Assessment (CVA) approach. The results obtained highlight some significant worsening of CVA indexes from 2019 to 2021, especially for the Campomarino beach, confirming the importance of the periodic updating of previous data. In conclusion, the easy use of the UAV technology and the good quality of the derived data make it an excellent approach for integration into traditional methodologies for the assessment of short-term shoreline and beach changes as well as for monitoring coastal vulnerability.

The protective role of mangroves in safeguarding coastal populations through hazard risk reduction: A case study in northeast Brazil

Coastal and estuarine ecosystems such as mangroves provide coastal protection services, safeguarding coastal communities and economies. However, sea-level rise can affect mangroves' protective role by increasing exposure to coastal hazards and economic costs. To better understand the role of mangroves as coastal protective barriers against hazards and their importance for conservation planning in the face of sea-level rise, we first analyzed temporal changes in the coastal landscape by measuring the erosion/accretion rates on the shoreline. We assessed coastal exposure to hazards with the presence and absence of mangroves. Finally, we estimated the economic losses and costs from the long-term retreat in the shoreline and mangrove loss. This study was carried out along the western coast of the South Atlantic, in the northeast Brazilian region. Coastal exposure indices were estimated using the Integrated Valuation of Environmental Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) software, and the multitemporal analysis of shoreline was developed using the Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) software. Finally, the economic losses produced by those shoreline changes and social costs were estimated by predicting economic losses in terms of private property and by calculating societal costs in mangrove restoration and rockfill building. The results show that nearly a third of the shoreline is experiencing erosion and the coast could lose an additional 118 ha by 2030. In terms of the value of property loss, this translates to US$38,800 and would increase to US$72,000 under the maximum erosion rate scenario. Based on our coastal vulnerability assessment, almost 50 km of the coastline (20%) would transition to intermediate-high exposure levels if the current distribution of mangroves were to be lost. It is expected to cost about US$145 million in rockfill works and US$21 million in forest restoration to mitigate the impacts from human activities and sea-level rise on mangroves ecosystem services. At the national level, a total loss of mangroves in Brazil could mean mangrove forest restoration costs of nearly US$4000 million. More robust conservation policies are needed to conserve mangrove forests and safeguard the ecosystem-service co-benefits they provide. The latter is essential in low- and middle-income nations where the economic and welfare losses from coastal hazards are more challenging due to dependence on nature for livelihoods and well-being.

Coastal Vulnerability Assessment of Bali Province, Indonesia Using Remote Sensing and GIS Approaches

Coastal zones are considered to be highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, such as erosion, flooding, and storms, including sea level rise (SLR). The effects of rising sea levels endanger several nations, including Indonesia, and it potentially affects the coastal population and natural environment. Quantification is needed to determine the degree of vulnerability experienced by a coast since measuring vulnerability is a fundamental phase towards effective risk reduction. Therefore, the main objective of this research is to identify how vulnerable the coastal zone of Bali Province by develop a Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI) of areas exposed to the sea-level rise on regional scales using remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) approaches. This study was conducted in Bali Province, Indonesia, which has a beach length of ~640 km, and six parameters were considered in the creation to measure the degree of coastal vulnerability by CVI: geomorphology, shoreline change rate, coastal elevation, sea-level change rate, tidal range, and significant wave height. The different vulnerability parameters were assigned ranks ranging from 1 to 5, with 1 indicating the lowest and 5 indicating the highest vulnerabilities. The study revealed that about 138 km (22%) of the mapped shoreline is classified as being at very high vulnerability and 164 km (26%) of shoreline is at high vulnerability. Of remaining shoreline, 168 km (26%) and 169 km (26%) are at moderate and low risk of coastal vulnerability, respectively. This study outcomes can provide an updated vulnerability map and valuable information for the Bali Province coast, aimed at increasing awareness among decision-makers and related stakeholders for development in mitigation and adaptation strategies. Additionally, the result may be utilized as basic data to build and implement appropriate coastal zone management.

Farasan Island of Saudi Arabia confronts the measurable impacts of global warming in 45 years

Coastal vulnerability assessment is the key to coastal management and sustainable development. Sea level rise (SLR) and anthropogenic activities have triggered more extreme climatic events and made the coastal region vulnerable in recent decades. Many parts of the world also noticed increased sediment deposition, tidal effects, and changes in the shoreline. Farasan Island, located in the south-eastern part of Saudi Arabia, experienced changes in sediment deposition from the Red Sea in recent years. This study used Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) to delineate the shoreline changes of Farasan Island during 1975–2020. Multi-temporal Landsat data and DSAS were used for shoreline calculation based on endpoint rate (EPR) and linear regression. Results revealed an increase in vegetation area on the island by 17.18 km2 during 1975–1989 and then a decrease by 69.85 km2 during 1990–2020. The built-up land increased by 5.69 km2 over the study period to accommodate the population growth. The annual temperature showed an increase at a rate of 0.196 °C/year. The sea-level rise caused a shift in the island's shoreline and caused a reduction of land by 80.86 km2 during 1975–2020. The highly influenced areas by the environmental changes were the north, central, northwest, southwest, and northeast parts of the island. Urban expansion and sea-level rise gradually influence the island ecosystem, which needs proper attention, management, policies, and awareness planning to protect the environment of Farasan Island. Also, the study’s findings could help develop new strategies and plan climate change adaptation.

Coastal vulnerability assessment based on multi-hazards and bio-geophysical parameters. case study - northwestern coastline of Guinea-Bissau

Coastal vulnerability assessment based on multi-hazards and bio-geophysical parameters. case study - northwestern coastline of Guinea-Bissau

Integrated socio-environmental vulnerability assessment of coastal hazards using data-driven and multi-criteria analysis approaches

Coastal hazard vulnerability assessment has been centered around the multi-variate analysis of geo-physical and hydroclimate data. The representation of coupled socio-environmental factors has often been ignored in vulnerability assessment. This study develops an integrated socio-environmental Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI), which simultaneously combines information from five vulnerability groups: biophysical, hydroclimate, socio-economic, ecological, and shoreline. Using the Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) approach, two CVI (CVI-50 and CVI-90) have been developed based on average and extreme conditions of the factors. Each CVI is then compared to a data-driven CVI, which is formed based on Probabilistic Principal Component Analysis (PPCA). Both MCDM and PPCA have been tied into geospatial analysis to assess the natural hazard vulnerability of six coastal counties in South Carolina. Despite traditional MCDM-based vulnerability assessments, where the final index is estimated based on subjective weighting methods or equal weights, this study employs an entropy weighting technique to reduce the individuals’ biases in weight assignment. Considering the multivariate nature of the coastal vulnerability, the validation results show both CVI-90 and PPCA preserve the vulnerability results from biophysical and socio-economic factors reasonably, while the CVI-50 methods underestimate the biophysical vulnerability of coastal hazards. Sensitivity analysis of CVIs shows that Charleston County is more sensitive to socio-economic factors, whereas in Horry County the physical factors contribute to a higher degree of vulnerability. Findings from this study suggest that the PPCA technique facilitates the high-dimensional vulnerability assessment, while the MCDM approach accounts more for decision-makers' opinions.

GIS based coastal vulnerability assessment and adaptation barriers to coastal regulations in Dakshina Kannada district, India

Coastal areas represent fragile and complex ecosystems. Changes in climate, increasing urbanization and industrialization are creating immense pressure on the coastal environment. Coastal erosion, sea level rise, changing morphology of the coastal areas and extreme weather events are some of the threats that coastal regions are experiencing globally. While various studies have assessed the vulnerability of coastal regions quantitatively and spatially, there is a need to supplement these findings with qualitative insights based on human experiences. Thus, the present study carried out a coastal vulnerability assessment along the coastline of Dakshina Kannada district in Karnataka, India using Shannon’s Entropy by including eight parameters i.e., slope, elevation, geomorphology, bathymetry, sea level rise, mean tidal range, mean significant wave height and shoreline change. The study also explored the experiences and perceptions of stakeholders regarding adaptation barriers to climate change vulnerabilities for understanding the ground complexities. Coastal vulnerability index (CVI) revealed that nearly 39.7 km of the coastline is vulnerable including areas along Sasihtlu beach, Munda, New Mangalore Port Batapady beach, Uchilla, Kotekar, Ullal beach, Netravati River Area and Mukka beach. Rainfall induced coastal erosion, lack of coordination among the various stakeholders, policy makers and practitioners regarding a common framework for climate change adaptation strategies were identified adaptation barriers. The findings of CVI and adaptation barriers may be used by practitioners and policy makers for framing the adaptation measures for mitigating the implications of the coastal region.

Coastal Vulnerability Assessment: A case study of the Ratnagiri coast, Maharashtra, India

The coastal zone is a vulnerable habitat that needs extra caution to protect ecosystems. Coastal systems are increasingly threatened by possible climate change consequences, as evidenced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s consecutive assessments. Increased tropical storm occurrences in recent years, in addition to the devastation caused by the tsunami in December 2004, have highlighted the necessity of analyzing the coast’s susceptibility to flooding-induced hazards to get a better knowledge of the factors that generate various hazards and, as a result, reduce the after-effects of future occurrences. The Ratnagiri coast in Maharashtra is prone to erosional hazards, periodic land rehabilitation, and sudden rises in sea level. The main objective is to calculate the CVI (Coastal Vulnerability Index) for the Ratnagiri coast. To analyze the vulnerability of the coastal region, eight risk parameters were used, viz. shoreline change rate, coastal elevation, sea level change rate, coastal slope, tide range, significant wave height, coastal geomorphology, and tsunami arrival height. The coastal vulnerability map was created by categorizing the numerous coastal portions into three vulnerability groups: high, medium, and low, which will aid coastal residents in risk mitigation in the future.

Coastal vulnerability assessment of India's Purba Medinipur-Balasore coastal stretch: A comparative study using empirical models

The 90.20 km coastal stretch extending from India's Subarnarekha estuary (Balasore District, Odisha) to the mouth of the Haldi River (Purba Medinipur, West Bengal) was evaluated. The evaluation was for vulnerability to climate extremes and variabilities (e.g. tropical cyclones, storm surges, and eustatic sea-level rise) resulting in coastal erosion, inundation, salinization and increased biophysical and socio-economic impacts. Coastal vulnerability mapping with respect to coastal hazards was applied to identify and implement risk reduction policies. In order to understand the spatial distribution of physical vulnerability along this coastal stretch, the Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI) using Gornitz's CVI model and the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method were applied. These models were run in ArcGIS ver. 10.5 using six geological parameters viz., elevation, slope, bathymetry, coastal geomorphology, shoreline change, and coastal land use and four physical process variables viz. Mean sea level (MSL), mean tidal range, significant wave height, and storm surge height. Both of the models produced very good results. Based on Gornitz's CVI model, it was found that 13.56% of the coastline is highly vulnerable to these hazards, while the AHP model indicated 11.29% of the coast was at high vulnerability. When both models were simulated the same probable inundation extent of two different storm surge scenarios of wave height, viz. ≤ 3 m and≤5 m, the areas estimated to be affected by the surge were 255.22 and 779.59 sq. km, respectively. The coastal blocks of Nandigram-I, Contai-I, Deshopran, and Bhograi were identified as highly vulnerable due to landward erosion and inundation. The study inferred that the combined effect of cyclonic activities and storm surge along with high tide made the coast highly susceptible. This study could help coastal planners, decision-makers, and administrators to prepare a risk management plan for long-term coastal conservation and management.

Atoll inland and coastal mangrove climate change vulnerability assessment

Climate change threatens global mangroves, which are already among the world’s most impacted ecosystems. Vulnerability components of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity were evaluated on mangroves of atoll settings on Jaluit Atoll, in the Marshall Islands, assessing spatial changes of mangrove cover 1945–2018/19, sea-level trends 1968–2019, and reviewing available information. Inland mangrove depressions occur on Jaluit, as well as coastal lagoon margin mangroves, and both were assessed using the same methods. Spatial analysis results showed both inland and coastal mangroves have increased in area. Inland mangroves on eight of Jaluit’s islands mostly expanded after 1976 from 40 to 50 hectares, with progradation and tidal creek infill closing lagoon connections. Shoreline mangroves showed 88–100% of transects prograding 0.1–0.51 m year−1 and 0–11.5% of transects eroding 0–0.18 m year−1. Assessment of a combination of aerial/satellite images, literature and on-the-ground photos indicated that the mangroves are in healthy condition. Vulnerability assessment results showed both inland and coastal mangroves to have similar strengths and weaknesses in resilience, with intrinsic areas of vulnerability persisting during increased future sea level rise, limited sediment supply and extremely low elevations.