Coastal Configuration Research Articles

Investigation of the applicability of the microwave image to complement the optical image for the preparation of a coastal configuration map

The coastal area, being the transition zone between the sea and land, is a country's most diverse and dynamic zone in terms of its environment and economy. A variety of economic activities revolve around this region. Mapping the dynamic coastal configuration is an essential tool for sustainable coastal zone management. Satellite remote sensing offers excellent resources for monitoring and mapping coastal zones. Microwave remote sensing images, in tandem with optical remote sensing imagery, can be used for mapping coastal configurations. However, both images have some limitations. In this context, the present article explores the integrated use of microwave images to supplement optical images to overcome these limitations and generate a coastline configuration map. Res. Agric. Livest. Fish. Vol. 11, No. 1, April 2024: 47-51

Implementation of additional spectral wave field exchanges in a three-dimensional wave–current coupled WAVEWATCH-III (version 6.07) and CROCO (version 1.2) configuration: assessment of their implications for macro-tidal coastal hydrodynamics

Abstract. An advanced coupling between a three-dimensional ocean circulation model (CROCO) and a spectral wave model (WAVEWATCH-III) is presented to better represent the interactions of macro-tidal currents with winds and waves. In the previous implementation of the coupled interface between these two models, some of the wave-induced terms in the ocean dynamic equations were computed from their monochromatic approximations (e.g. Stokes drift, Bernoulli head, near-bottom wave orbital velocity, wave-to-ocean energy flux). In the present study, the exchanges of these fields computed from the spectral wave model are implemented and evaluated. A set of numerical experiments for a coastal configuration of the macro-tidal circulation off the Bay of Somme (France) is designed. The impact of the spectral versus monochromatic computation of wave-induced terms has a notable effect on the macro-tidal hydrodynamics, particularly in scenarios involving storm waves and opposing winds to tidal flows. This effect manifests as a reduction in the wave-induced deceleration of the vertical profile of tidal currents. The new implementation provides current magnitudes closer to measurements than those predicted using monochromatic formulations, particularly at the free surface. The spectral-surface Stokes drift and the near-bottom wave orbital velocity are found to be the spectral fields with the most impact, respectively increasing advection towards the free surface and shifting the profile close to the seabed. In the particular case of the Bay of Somme, the approximation of these spectral terms with their monochromatic counterparts ultimately results in an underestimation of ocean surface currents. Our model developments thus provide a better description of the competing effects of tides, winds, and waves on the circulation off macro-tidal bays, with implications for the study of air–sea interactions and sediment transport processes.

Influence of hydrodynamic conditions on the bacteriobenthos distribution in the upper reaches of the Zhiguli hydroelectric power station of the Kuibyshev reservoir

The paper presents the results of our expedition studies of bacteriobenthos in the water area of the Kuibyshev reservoir in the autumn period of 2020 and the influence of the dynamics of currents on its spatial distribution. The relevance of the study is determined by the need to study the internal load (secondary pollution) of large reservoirs from bottom sediments. The Kuibyshev reservoir is one of the largest flowing reservoirs in the world, where features of the coastal configuration, the heterogeneity of the bed, the unsteady hydrodynamic regime, the sediment regime and its composition determine the spatial distribution of bottom sediments and the bacteriobenthos community therein, which is an important link in the circulation processes of organic and biogenic substances in the ecosystem of the reservoir. An assessment of the regime of currents and sediments was carried out by calculation on a 2D mathematical model of the Priplotinny Reach of the Kuibyshev reservoir, implemented in the software package «VOLNA». The model was verified, and a series of numerical calculations of the flow velocity was carried out taking into account the regime of water flow control at hydraulic units. The spatial geometry of the currents and the sediment flow distribution dynamics were obtained. According to the data of our expedition studies, the total numbers and biomass of bacteria were estimated, which varied in the range of (2.47–27.55)×109 cells mL-1 and 0.10–2.43 μg mL-1, respectively. As a result of the conducted studies, patterns of the spatial distribution of the bacterial community in the water area of the Priplotinny Reach of the reservoir were revealed, and the nature of the relationship between the total numbers of bacteria and the sedimentation rate, the flow velocity, and the content of organic matter in bottom sediments was established. The influence of the circulation zones of currents in shallow waters on the nature of the distribution of bottom sediments and changes in the quantitative characteristics of bacteriobenthos is shown.

ShoreScape

Urbanized sandy shores around the world suffer from coastal erosion due to a lack of sediment input and sea level rise. These dynamics place new demands on coastal spatial planning. To compensate for coastal erosion in a more natural and systemic way, sand nourishments are deployed as a ‘Building with Nature’ technique, restoring the sediment balance and promoting dune formation as coastal defence. In this research, Building with Nature is reframed as a landscape approach, regenerating the coastal landscape by tuning the interactions between the geomorphological, ecological, and urban system, to adapt to sea level rise. To this end, design principles have been developed that integrate nourishment dynamics, natural succession, and adaptive urban design to build towards safe and multi-functional coastal landscapes— Shore-Scapes. They focus on spatial coastal configurations utilizing wind-driven sedimentation processes to build up the coastal buffer, supporting dune formation, multifunctionality, and landscape differentiation. To direct sediment dynamics for coastal reinforcement and landscaping, three subsequent tools for dynamic design have been derived: morphogenesis, dynamic profiling, and aeolian design principles. With these principles, validated by fieldwork, GIS, and computational modelling, spatial arrangements can be composed enhancing the aeolian build-up of the coastal landscape over time. These principles were applied and contextualized in four case studies along the Dutch coast. They illustrate how dunes along urbanized shores can grow naturally after nourishment and allow coastal safety, recreation, and nature to complement each other.

Beach Environment along the Coastal Stretch of West Bengal

Beach is one of the most conspicuous geomorphic features of a coastal region. Interpretation of any beach environment warrants detailed analysis of its morphological features, prevailing hydrodynamic conditions, actions of wind and cyclonic surges which bring discernible changes in the coastal configurations. Various beach features have been dealt here in details.

Palaeo-Shoreline Configuration of the Adventure Plateau (Sicilian Channel) at the Last Glacial Maximum

The Adventure Plateau, located in the NW sector of the Sicilian Channel, experienced several episodes of exposure/erosion and subsequent drowning, with the most recent occurring after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Unlike other parts of the Sicilian Channel, the Adventure Plateau is relatively tectonically stable and is therefore best suitable for reconstructing its coastal configuration before the post-LGM marine transgression. Here, we use high-resolution seismic data to identify and map the palaeo-coastline at the LGM on the basis of the internal architecture of the prograding wedges (i.e., the location of the subaqueous clinoform rollover point) and the erosional markers such as the subaerial unconformities and the wave ravinement surfaces. These data, which show an extreme variability in the palaeo-morphology of the coastal margins of the Adventure Plateau, have been complemented with vintage seismic profiles in order to entirely cover its perimeter. The mapped LGM coastline has then been compared to predictions from glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) modeling, which considers the horizontal migration of the shorelines in response to sea level rise and to Earth’s rotational and deformational effects associated with deglaciation. The two shorelines (i.e., the coastline derived from the marine data interpretation and the one derived from the GIA model) are in good agreement at 21 kyears BP, although some discrepancies occur in the southern part of the plateau, where the seabed slope is extremely gentle, which makes the clinoform rollover points and the buried erosional unconformities difficult to detect. After 20 kyears BP, an acceleration in the rate of the sea level rise occurred. The results of this study indicate the importance of comparing experimental data with model predictions in order to refine and calibrate boundary parameters and to gain a better picture of the evolution of sea level rise over various time scales.

Post-Nourishment Changes of an Artificial Gravel Pocket Beach Using UAV Imagery

Monitoring and analysis of changes in the volume and area of nourished beaches is crucial to inform any beach renourishment programme. The aim of this study is to utilise UAV surveys and SfM photogrammetry to assess the beach nourishment performance of an artificial gravel beach exposed to a range of external forcing, including storms. The paper presents results from nineteen UAV surveys conducted between January 2020 and January 2021 at Ploče, an artificial beach in Rijeka (Croatia). The beach was nourished twice and eleven storm events, ranging from weak to strong, were recorded during this period. The Agisoft Metashape software was used to obtain point clouds and digital elevation models (DEMs) from UAV images; Matlab and CloudCompare were used for further analysis of the DEMs. The accuracy and precision of the DEMs was assessed and uncertainty levels of ±5 cm were applied to all derived DEMs. The study provides new insights into the response of the emerged part of the beach to storms. Predictably, the largest changes were recorded after the first storm following beach nourishment. The longshore variability in the beach response to storms was identified from full 3D point clouds. Most of the lost sediment was from the east side of the beach, while the rest of the beach aligned with the predominant wave direction through cross-shore and longshore processes. Offshore/onshore sediment exchange between the lower and upper beach face on the western side manifested itself in beach profile steepening and berm formations. Overall, changes in beach volume and area were small, indicating that this artificial beach is relatively stable. The embayed layout following the natural coastal configuration appears to be effective in retaining nourished sediment on the beach. This work highlights the need to consider pocket embayed beaches in three dimensions, as traditional transect studies can overlook the three-dimensional behaviour. This study also highlighted the wider potential of UAVs and SfM for studies of high-resolution elevation changes on natural and artificial beaches, as well as for coastal monitoring of beach nourishment.

Application of Artificial Neural Networks to Predict Beach Nourishment Volume Requirements

The volume of material required for the construction of new and expansion of existing beach sites is an important parameter for coastal management. This information may play a crucial role when deciding which beach sites to develop. This work examines whether artificial neural networks (ANNs) can predict the spatial variability of nourishment requirements on the Croatian coast. We use survey data of the nourishment volume requirements and gravel diameter from 2016 to 2020, fetch length, beach area and orientation derived from national maps which vary from location to location due to a complex coastal configuration on the East Adriatic coast, and wind, tide, and rainfall data from nearby meteorological/oceanographic stations to train and test ANNs. The results reported here confirm that an ANN can adequately predict the spatial variability of observed nourishment volumes (R and MSE for the test set equal 0.87 and 2.24 × 104, respectively). The contributions of different parameters to the ANN’s predictive ability were examined. Apart from the most obvious parameters like the beach length and the beach areas, the fetch length proved to be the most important input contribution to ANN’s predictive ability, followed by the beach orientation. Fetch length and beach orientation are parameters governing the wind wave height and direction and hence are proxies for forcing.

Multi-decadal coastal evolution of a North Atlantic shelf-edge vegetated sand island — Sable Island, Canada

Impacts from a changing climate, in particular sea-level rise, will be most acutely felt on small oceanic islands. A common configuration of mid-latitude islands is the sandy barrier island. Sable Island, Nova Scotia, Canada is a vegetated sand island near the shelf edge, 160 km from the nearest point of land, that is morphologically similar to a barrier island. This study uses 60 years of airphoto records to analyse changes in coastline position through digitized shore and vegetation (foredune proxy) lines. Rates of coastal movement are analysed to model the future (2039) coastal configuration. The analyses suggest that the majority of the coastline on Sable Island is in retreat, with net retreat on the south side of the island only partially offset by modest net advance on the north side. The different morphologies of the beach–dune systems of South Beach and North Beach, driven by incident wind and waves, yield these different coastline responses. Projected loss of 10 ha by 2039 of the climax heath vegetative community to shoreline retreat suggests a trend toward island instability due to coastline migration. Island-wide data set trends show support for two different but complementary hypotheses about whole-island evolution: (1) the island is mobile via bank migration driving southern coastline changes and experiencing sediment transport toward the east, or (2) the island is generally immobile and losing subaerial sediments (and thus shrinking) likely due to ongoing (and accelerating) sea-level rise.

Shellfish Collection Practices of the First Inhabitants of Southwestern Puerto Rico: The Effects of Site Type and Paleoenvironment on Habitat Choice

After decades of study, much remains unknown about the foraging practices of the earliest inhabitants of Puerto Rico. Here, we present an analysis of the malacological assemblages of two neighboring and (partially) contemporary early sites from the island's southwest, finding intriguing intersite differences in shellfish collection practices. We attribute this diversity to differences in site type, chronology, or changes in local coastal configuration. This work not only provides insights into prehistoric Puerto Rican foraging dynamics but also demonstrates the importance of considering factors including intra-age chronology, site type, and changes in paleoenvironmental conditions when considering ancient foraging practices.

Vegetación de un área polderizada del Río de la Plata en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires: la Reserva Ecológica Ciudad Universitaria - Costanera Norte

Coastal reclamation constitutes a world trend and can result in new ecosystems adapted to the new coastal configuration. In Buenos Aires City, the “Ciudad Universitaria - Costanera Norte” Ecological Reserve (RECU-CN) constitutes one example of the expansion of the coastline in the Río de la Plata sector, carried out in the late 1960s. Given the lack of published works generated systematically that cover the entire area, we set as the objective to describe the RECU-CN vascular plant vegetation. For this, a systematic sampling was carried out in 79 plots of 25 m2, where the coverage of each of the vascular plant species present was registered. We identified 154 taxa, corresponding to 144 species, 123 genus and 58 families, and the total richness was estimated as 238 species. Trees and herbs had the highest coverage of all life forms. Through multivariate analysis, three vegetation units (Wetland, Forest and Grassland with groves) and 10 vascular plant communities were recognized. Vegetation was ordered according to two gradients: one of flood and another of anthropization. From the comparison with the typical plant communities of the region, similarities were found only with those registered in the Wetland unit. Results highlight that both the coexistence of physiognomically diverse vegetation units, as well as the native composition found in the plant communities of the Wetland unit, constitute main conservation values of the protected area.

Towards an End-to-End Analysis and Prediction System for Weather, Climate, and Marine Applications in the Red Sea

AbstractThe Red Sea, home to the second-longest coral reef system in the world, is a vital resource for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The Red Sea provides 90% of the Kingdom’s potable water by desalinization, supporting tourism, shipping, aquaculture, and fishing industries, which together contribute about 10%–20% of the country’s GDP. All these activities, and those elsewhere in the Red Sea region, critically depend on oceanic and atmospheric conditions. At a time of mega-development projects along the Red Sea coast, and global warming, authorities are working on optimizing the harnessing of environmental resources, including renewable energy and rainwater harvesting. All these require high-resolution weather and climate information. Toward this end, we have undertaken a multipronged research and development activity in which we are developing an integrated data-driven regional coupled modeling system. The telescopically nested components include 5-km- to 600-m-resolution atmospheric models to address weather and climate challenges, 4-km- to 50-m-resolution ocean models with regional and coastal configurations to simulate and predict the general and mesoscale circulation, 4-km- to 100-m-resolution ecosystem models to simulate the biogeochemistry, and 1-km- to 50-m-resolution wave models. In addition, a complementary probabilistic transport modeling system predicts dispersion of contaminant plumes, oil spill, and marine ecosystem connectivity. Advanced ensemble data assimilation capabilities have also been implemented for accurate forecasting. Resulting achievements include significant advancement in our understanding of the regional circulation and its connection to the global climate, development, and validation of long-term Red Sea regional atmospheric–oceanic–wave reanalyses and forecasting capacities. These products are being extensively used by academia, government, and industry in various weather and marine studies and operations, environmental policies, renewable energy applications, impact assessment, flood forecasting, and more.

Mid to Late-Holocene relative sea-level fluctuations and palaeoenvironment: Evidences from the southern Saurashtra coast, western India

Around 2 m thick relict mudflat, stabilized coastal dune and marine notches are used to estimate the relative sea level (RSL) changes during the mid-Holocene along the part of southern Saurashtra coast. The study identifies two events of high RSL which are dated to 7.3 cal yr BP to 5.1 cal yr BP (Mid-Holocene) and ~1 ka BP (Late-Holocene). Based on the geochemical proxies, the Mid-Holocene high RSL is ascribed to the combined contribution of global ice melt and the strengthened Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM), whereas, the Late-Holocene high RSL is attributed to the Medieval Climate Anomaly. A decline in the ISM is observed at ~4.2 ka which also corresponds with the declining trend in the RSL. However, after 4 ka, a sustained ISM is inferred which continued till 1 ka. The uplift estimated based on the tectonic overprinting of the raised intertidal platforms and marine notches shows ~1.5–2 m uplift after the Mid-Holocene. This implies that the net RSL component during the Mid to Late-Holocene was marginally high (above the present high-tide mark). Further, the notch morphology and empirically driven erosion rate estimates indicate that the coastal uplifts occurred at ≤ 4 ka and was probably responsible for the present-day coastal configuration.

Using multiple environmental proxies and hydrodynamic modeling to investigate Late Holocene climate and coastal change within a large Gulf of Mexico estuarine system (Mobile Bay, Alabama, USA)

A high degree of uncertainty exists for understanding and predicting coastal estuarine response to changing climate, land-use, and sea-level conditions, leaving geologic records as a best-proxy for constraining potential outcomes. With the majority of the world's population focused in coastal regions, understanding how local systems respond to global, regional, and even local pressures is key in developing mitigation, adaptation, and management plans. The geomorphology of Mobile Bay in southeast Alabama (USA) has evolved considerably (e.g., bayhead delta back-stepping) over the late Holocene in response to global and regional sea-level and climate change. Smaller-scale geomorphic changes (e.g., spit and beach ridge development) have also had a significant influence on the evolution of the estuary. Organic matter characteristics, inorganic sediment geochemistry, benthic microfossils, and pollen in a ~ 3500 cal yr BP sediment sequence recovered in a gravity core (20GC) from Bon Secour Bay, a small sub-bay in the southeast corner of Mobile Bay, record time-varying marine influence. Increases in marine influence during ~3500 to 2300 cal yr BP and 1930 to 1160 cal yr BP are defined as zones with high-density and pre-dominantly calcareous foraminiferal species, abundant sand (>10%) and more marine-like geochemical signatures, which contrast the low-density and pre-dominantly agglutinated foraminiferal and more terrestrially influenced estuarine muds observed in other intervals of the sedimentary record (2300–1930 and 1160–400 cal yr BP) and the modern bay. Hydrodynamic models constrained by geomorphic boundary conditions for the time ~ 3500 cal yr BP, consistent with the most prominent marine-influenced sediment, provide insight to potential coastal configuration that might have permitted such marine water intrusion into the bay. Of several scenarios evaluated, a breach in Morgan Peninsula produces tidal circulation within the basin supportive of persistent marine incursions in the bay between ~3500 to 2300 cal yr BP. The findings show that slight variations in coastal configuration can have broad-scale effects on bays and estuaries with consequences that may relate to water quality, vertebrate and invertebrate habitat, and coastal vulnerability to episodic events like (extra)tropical storms.

A coastal unstructured model using Voronoi meshes and C-grid staggering

A coastal ocean model is presented, adapting the unstructured C-grid discretisation (Ringler et al., 2010) employed in the MPAS (Model for Prediction Across Scales) global ocean model for use in an existing structured coastal modelling framework. Specifically, the discretisation of momentum advection, horizontal viscosity, Coriolis and continuity due to Ringler et al. are used; remaining terms are adapted from their equivalent formulations on structured meshes. The new model operates on an unstructured variant of the Arakawa C-grid, whereby normal velocity components are staggered at the edges of Voronoi cells, with fluid height and tracer variables located at cell centres. In contrast to equivalent C-grid formulations on triangular meshes, there is no requirement to suppress spurious numerical modes associated with the horizontal divergence operator, alleviating a significant difficulty often associated with unstructured C-grid models. Additional attention was required to make the new model applicable to coastal configurations, vis. open boundaries, wetting and drying and inline meshing capabilities. Extensions of existing high-order tracer advection schemes were also implemented to operate on Voronoi-type meshes. The model was tested in a realistic application (a flood event in a complex coastal embayment) subject to full forcing which exercised these unstructured numerics. Model solutions compared favourably to observations collected from a Slocum glider, tide gauge and sub-surface mooring.

Boulder barricades in an emerging hypertidal environment: the case of Ungava Bay, northern Quebec, Canada

ABSTRACTBoulder barricades are poorly documented Holocene coastal landforms of Arctic and Subarctic regions. To understand the terrain factors and coastal processes explaining the occurrences of boulder barricades, we mapped and described these periglacial landforms along the emerging hypertidal coast of Ungava Bay, in Nunavik, northern Quebec, Canada. This study examines the spatial distribution as well as the different types and configurations of boulder barricades, and identifies and discusses the formation processes of these ridges, which are affected by the ongoing glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) process. We distinguish four types of ice-formed boulder ridges: low-tide-, intertidal-, high-tide- and raised boulder barricades. Our results highlight the importance of specific terrain factors (coastal configurations, intertidal and backshore slopes, widths of intertidal zones, susceptibility to coastal erosion) and related coastal processes (ice-pushing and ice-rafting intensified by strong tidal currents), forming these different types of barricades. Due to the GIA process, this coastal region is characterized by a large number of evolutionary sequences (i.e. flights) of boulder barricades, from the intertidal zone to the emerged landscape. These sea-ice-related landforms have significant effects on the coastal geomorphology of the Ungava Bay region by successively enclosing and isolating many ponds and lakes.

First high-resolution multi-proxy palaeoenvironmental record of the Late Glacial to Early Holocene transition in the Ría de Arousa (Atlantic margin of NW Iberia)

A 322-cm-long sedimentary sequence obtained in the shallow marine basin of the Ría de Arousa—a submerged unglaciated river valley on the Atlantic margin of northwestern Iberia—was analysed using a multi-proxy approach to study how climatic and sea level changes affected the coastal ecosystems during the Last Glacial–Interglacial Transition. Past sedimentation, vegetation and marine productivities were inferred from palynological, radiocarbon, seismic and lithological data. A substantial reduction in the pollen and dinoflagellate cyst accumulation rates is observed at ∼12,700 to 11,700 cal a BP, suggesting lower marine and vegetation productivities likely as a response to the Younger Dryas cooling event. Overall, the regional vegetation changed from cold-tolerant open woodlands (Pinus sylvestris/P. nigra and Betula) dominating before ∼10,200 cal a BP to coastal wetlands and the regional spread of Quercus-dominated forests after ∼9800 cal a BP. Cluster analysis and principal component analysis allowed the identification of several small environmental oscillations, such as the 11.4 ka and 10.5 ka cooling events. After that, a conspicuous heath expansion was likely favoured by the palaeotopography, the increased precipitation and the relative sea level rise, which might have caused a profound change in the coastal configuration. Concurrently, both the dinoflagellate cyst and non-pollen palynomorph records reveal variations in the marine productivity and coastal hydrodynamics that also agree with a period of marked marine transgression, warming and increasing river flow. New sedimentary data highlight the high sensitivity of the ria's ecosystems to environmental oscillations and show a close temporal correspondence between terrestrial and marine responses to climate change.

Comments on “Geomorphic evidences of tectonic instability during the Late Quaternary Period along southern Saurashtra, western India” by Prizomwala (2018)

The coastal tract of Saurashtra has been primarily controlled by sea-level changes and neo-tectonism thereby preserving coastal geomorphic features such as tidal notches, intertidal platforms and relict mudflats underscoring the interplay of sea-level and tectonics for the present coastal configuration. In a recent paper, Prizomwala (Arab J Geosci 11:397, 2018) investigated the geomorphic evidences of tectonic activity from the coastal tract of southern Saurashtra region based on the morphometry and the geomorphic features particularly the tidal notches. In the interpretation and estimation of tectonics, the author is making the same inferences which is already published by Banerji et al. (J Asian Earth Sci 111:428–439, 2015); thus, the paper does not contribute anything new towards understanding the tectonic instability of the study area.

Local Coastal Configuration Rather Than Latitudinal Gradient Shape Clonal Diversity and Genetic Structure of Phymatolithon calcareum Maerl Beds in North European Atlantic

Maerl beds are one of the world’s key coastal ecosystems and are threatened by human activities and global change. In this study, the genetic diversity and structure of one of the major European maerl-forming species, Phymatolithon calcareum, was studied using eight microsatellite markers. Two sampling scales (global: North East Atlantic and regional: Galicia) were investigated and fifteen maerl beds from Atlantic Europe were sampled. At the regional-scale the location of sites outside and within four estuaries allowed to test for the influence of coastal configuration on population connectivity and genetic diversity. Results suggested that clonal reproduction plays an important role in the population dynamics of P. calcareum maerl beds. Clonality was variable among populations, even within the same region. At the European scale, these differences in clonality cannot be explained by the geographic or latitudinal distribution of the populations studied. A significant genetic differentiation was found among almost all population pairs and a positive correlation between geographic and genetic distances showed the limited dispersal capacity of P. calcareum. Moreover, a very clear pattern of genetic structure was revealed at the regional scale between populations located within and at the mouth of the estuaries. Genetic differentiation among estuaries was less marked for the sites located in outer-zones compared to those located in the inner-zones. In addition, variation in level of clonality linked to seascape was also observed: populations situated in the outer-zones of the estuaries were less clonal than those in the inner-zones. Finally, populations from the same estuary generally shared one or several mutilocus genotypes.

New York City Panel on Climate Change 2019 Report Chapter 5: Mapping Climate Risk

New York City Panel on Climate Change 2019 Report Chapter 5: Mapping Climate Risk