Coast Of Lebanon Research Articles

Insect taxa as biodiversity indicators at selected coastal landscape

For monitoring responses of insect arthropods to disturbance, a dataset of 1831 insects was considered. We studied faunal diversity of insects in terraces habitats located on the coast of Lebanon. Insects were sampled from 12 sites having different habitats with one sampling method of combined pitfall-pan trap. This study resulted in nine insect orders and 129 morphospecies. Hymenoptera was the most abundant order in all habitats (63.57%) followed by the orders Diptera, Homoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Dictyoptera and Thysanoptera. This coast was classified with medium biodiversity index (D) of 0.51 for insect orders and high D of 0.83 for morphospecies. The highest (D) was in field crops habitat (H1) of 0.64 and 0.91 for insect orders and morphospecies, respectively; followed by scrublands (H3), greenhouse areas (H2) and olive orchards (H4). These results indicated that human intervention was affecting the diversity in natural habitats. Five insect orders: Coleoptera, Dictyoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, and Lepidoptera were significantly selected as potential biodiversity indicators in this coastal area. Thus, for monitoring these bioindicators, a protocol based on operating our combined trap method appears practical in design and yield very diverse material with the target of sustaining these insect populations in the coastal area.

Spatio-temporal variation of the microbial community of the coast of Lebanon in response to petroleum hydrocarbon pollution

In this study, the coast of Lebanon was analyzed for the dynamic changes in sediment microbial communities in response to a major petroleum oil spill and tar contamination that occurred in the summer of 2021. Spatio-temporal variations in the microbial structure along the shores of Lebanon were assessed in comparison to baseline microbial structure determined in 2017. Microbial community structure and diversity were determined using Illumina MiSeq technology and DADA2 pipeline. The results show a significant diversity of microbial populations along the Lebanese shore, and a significant change in the sediment microbial structure within four years. Namely, Woeseia, Blastopirellula, and Muriicola were identified in sediment samples collected in year 2017, while a higher microbial diversity was observed in 2021 with Woeseia, Halogranum, Bacillus, and Vibrio prevailing in beach sediments. In addition, the results demonstrate a significant correlation between certain hydrocarbon degraders, such as Marinobacter and Vibrio, and measured hydrocarbon concentrations.

Evaluation of Postharvest Maturity Indices of Commercial Avocado Varieties Grown at Various Elevations Along Lebanon's Coast.

Avocado is known to be a climacteric fruit that must be harvested during the suitable physiological maturity stage to achieve the best edible characteristics and reach the required export standards. It is very hard to visually determine the optimum maturity phases in the different avocado varieties for harvesting, especially because of the limited changes in the external fruit morphology during the maturity phase and because the harvest season is extended throughout several months. Therefore, some laboratory analyses are very crucial to determine the best timing to harvest the fruit. The aim of this study was to evaluate the postharvest maturity indices over 3 harvest stages, mainly dry matter (DM), oil content (OC), fruit firmness, titratable acidity (TA), total soluble solid (TSS/Brix), and fruit weight in commercial avocado varieties in regard to different altitudes and agricultural practices. The varieties in this study were as follows: Hass, Lambhass, Ettinger, Fuerte, Pinkerton, Reed, and Horshim growing at different altitudes that ranged from 50 to 400 m in 7 different regions in Lebanon. Statistical comparison of maturity indices under different locations by variety and harvest stage was performed using one-way ANOVA as well as by principal component analysis (PCA). The results showed a high linear correlation between DM and OC over the different harvest stages. During the late harvest stage, the weight showed a negative correlation between fruit firmness and TSS. The minimum oil content % and dry matter % were recorded for Reed variety (8.2 DM and 9.7 OC%) and the highest oil content % and dry matter % were recorded for Fuerte variety (28.5 DM and 21.6 OC%). The data obtained during this study are used to achieve the best edible characteristics and export standards of commercial avocado varieties growing along the Lebanese coast.

Quantitative reconstruction of pore-pressure history in sedimentary basins using fluid escape pipes

Abstract We present a novel method to reconstruct the pressure conditions responsible for the formation of fluid escape pipes in sedimentary basins. We analyzed the episodic venting of high-pressure fluids from the crests of a large anticlinal structure that formed off the coast of Lebanon in the past 1.7 m.y. In total, 21 fluid escape pipes formed at intervals of 50–100 k.y. and transected over 3 km of claystone and evaporite sealing units to reach the seabed. From fracture criteria obtained from nearby drilling, we calculated that overpressures in excess of 30 MPa were required for their formation, with pressure recharge of up to 2 MPa occurring after each pipe-forming event, resulting in a sawtooth pressure-time evolution. This pressure-time evolution is most easily explained by tectonic overpressuring due to active folding of the main source aquifer while in a confined geometry.

The accretion of the Levant continental shelf alongside the Nile Delta by immense margin-parallel sediment transport

Following the termination of the Messinian salinity crisis ~5.3 million years ago, massive sedimentation in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea formed the huge Nile Delta. Alongside delta propagation, a continental shelf was accreted along the Levant margin. For several decades it was assumed that these two sedimentary structures were closely connected. Levant shelf deposits are composed of Nile-derived sediments and present-day measurements show that sand is currently being transported alongshore from the Nile Delta to offshore Israel. This study reexamines the existing paradigm about sediment transport and shelf-delta connection. We show that longshore sand transport is just a small part of a much larger process termed here margin-parallel sediment transport (MPST). Sand is transported in a nearshore shallow-water belt where marine currents are highly energetic. At the same time, shale is transported at greater depths over the deeper shelf and the continental slope where marine currents are weaker. To model the accretion of the Levant shelf alongside the Nile Delta we use a 3D, diffusion-based, stratigraphic modeling tool (DionisosFlow) with a new module representing MPST. Our results show that margin-parallel transport of silt and clay in the deeper waters accounts for the bulk of deposition offshore Israel and is responsible for the development of the Levant shelf. Moreover, though MPST has begun coevally with delta formation, massive accretion of the Levant shelf was delayed by 2–3 My. Initially, a continental shelf formed offshore Sinai, then offshore Israel, and most recently along the Lebanon coast. Our model also demonstrates the significant lithological differences observed between sedimentation in front of the Nile River mouth and along adjacent continental margin. High energy down-slope sediment transport carries sand, silt, and clay, whereas margin-parallel currents are relatively weak and carry mainly silt and clay. One exception within the margin-parallel system is the highly energetic nearshore current that transports sand. Thus, we point out, MPST is an efficient separator between shale and sand.

New Light on the Correspondence of Abimilki, King of Tyre

This article discusses the chronological sequence of the eleven letters of the kings of Tyre (EA 146–155, 295) and the history of Tyre in the Amarna period, as it has emerged from the re-dating of the letters. The article also suggests that Abimilki was a Tyrian prince sent as a hostage to Egypt and, following the crisis of succession, chosen by Amenhotep III to sit on the Tyrian throne. The education and cultural background to which the king was exposed in his youth, in the Egyptian court, explains the unique characteristic of the Tyrian letters within the Amarna correspondence. The article also describes the history of Tyre from the later years of Amenhotep III to the later years of Akhenaten, and the contribution of the Tyrian letters to the history of the Coast of Lebanon in the Amarna period.

Fracture-controlled groundwater seeps into the Mediterranean Sea along the coast of Lebanon

Groundwater has recently become a main resource for domestic water and irrigation in Lebanon. During the last two decades, surface water and shallow groundwater have been severely exhausted to meet water demand. This study seeks to understand the groundwater flow/storage regime and the mechanism of water loss into the sea using a geospatial approach. Landsat thermal satellite images from years 2013–2015 are used to detect freshwater seeps in the coastal waters of Lebanon to analyse their distribution, time of occurrence and origin. The analysis is supplemented with data from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), geological maps, the SRTM Digital Elevation Model (DEM), and springs’ location maps. A groundwater potentiality map is constructed to understand points of surface water entry into the ground, areas of accumulation and water transport pathways. Results show dominant thermal plumes off-shore adjacent to Akkar District and Batroun city. The former relates to direct rainfall and the latter to rainfall and snowmelt on land. No surface drainage is associated with either plume. Both plumes project 8–13 km from inland along fault alignments. These faults act as conduits to channel rainwater and snowmelt from the surrounding mountains before seeping into the sea. It is thus feasible to capture the water lost this way for farming and domestic uses. The study presents an integrative geospatial approach that can be extended and applied throughout the coastal Middle East and North Africa Region to assess freshwater seeps into the sea.

Distribution and diagenesis of trace metals in marine sediments of a coastal Mediterranean area: St Georges Bay (Lebanon)

St Georges Bay of Lebanon's coast is an open bay to the Mediterranean Sea. It is exposed to numerous anthropogenic activities such as industrial effluent, untreated wastewater discharge and maritime activities resulting in increasing chemical contamination, especially with trace metals. Contamination with trace metals (Cu, Cd, Co, Pb, As, Ag and Hg) and the influence of early diagenesis on their distribution were studied on both sediments and waters. For this purpose, sediment cores were collected, then treated under inert atmosphere to retrieve pore waters and solid fraction. The area appears to be seriously impacted by the materials transported by the Beirut River and/or by direct inputs, and recent land reclamation using dumpsite material. The sediments showed a significant level of contamination. Element mobility was studied by selective extraction on sediments. The mobility of trace elements from solid fraction to pore waters is controlled by the Fe/Mn cycle and organic matter.

Characterization of the microbial community diversity and composition of the coast of Lebanon: Potential for petroleum oil biodegradation.

In this study, the shoreline of Lebanon, which extends over 225 km along the eastern side of the Mediterranean Sea, was characterized for its sediment microbial community diversity and composition using 16S rRNA gene sequencing with Illumina MiSeq technology. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) analysis showed no clear grouping among nearby sampled sites along the shoreline. Insignificant diversion between the wet and dry season microbial communities was observed along the coast at each sampling site. A high variation at the genus level was observed, with several novel genera identified at high relative abundance in certain locations, such as JTB255 marine benthic groups OTU_4 (5.4%) and OTU_60 (3.2%), and BD7-8 marine group OTU_5 (2.9%).

Assessment of crude oil bioremediation potential of seawater and sediments from the shore of Lebanon in laboratory microcosms

With the planned oil and gas exploration activities off the coast of Lebanon, the risk of shoreline contamination with crude oil spills has become a major concern. This study aimed at assessing the crude oil bioremediation potential of the chronically polluted Lebanese shores in light of the continuous discharge of nutrient-rich sewage into the Mediterranean Sea and the long-lasting absence of proper sewage treatment systems. It was anticipated that, with the high pollution levels of the coastline, background concentrations of nutrients would be sufficient to sustain high intrinsic biodegradation rates without human intervention. Biodegradation experiments were conducted using crude oil-spiked beach sediments and seawater under natural attenuation and biostimulation conditions. The experiments were conducted at 18 and 28 °C to account for seasonal variation in temperature, background nutrient levels, and microbial communities. The biodegradability of oil constituents – namely alkanes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), was monitored over a 42-day period using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Under biostimulation conditions, significant enhancement in the overall biodegradation rates of alkanes and PAHs was observed in seawater at 18 and 28 °C, while little to no improvement was measured at both temperatures in sediments where background nutrient levels were sufficient to induce near maximum intrinsic biodegradation rates. Under both natural attenuation and biostimulation treatments, the increase in temperature increased the oil biodegradation rates in sediment and seawater microcosms. In both instances, the overall trend in the biodegradation of individual alkanes and PAHs suggested a typical decrease in biodegradation rates with the increase in carbon number/rings and alkyl groups.

Epibenthic communities associated with unintentional artificial reefs (modern shipwrecks) under contrasting regimes of nutrients in the Levantine Sea (Cyprus and Lebanon).

Artificial reefs, in the Eastern Mediterranean (Cyprus,) became a popular and frequently used tool, in fisheries and biodiversity conservation management. Even though evaluation studies about the efficacy of artificial reefs are plentiful in the rest of the Mediterranean (Central and Western), in the Eastern Basin they are largely absent. As the Eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea is characterised by unique physical parameters, the necessity to study artificial reefs under these contrasting regimes increases. The epibenthic communities of two unintentional artificial reefs (modern shipwrecks) in Cyprus (Zenobia) and Lebanon (Alice-B) were evaluated in 2010. Both shipwrecks are at similar depth, type of sea bottom, made of the same material (steel) and were sunk approximately the same period of time. However, Alice-B shipwreck off the coast of Lebanon is constantly exposed to higher levels of nutrients than Zenobia in Cyprus. Significant dissimilarities were observed in the composition, percentage of benthic cover of predominant taxonomic groups and development of the epibenthic communities. Differences in physical and chemical parameters between sides lay mainly in the nutrient and thermal regimes affecting the shipwrecks and most likely bring about the differences in the observed community structure. The results of this study suggest that epibenthic communities could be highly impacted by eutrophication caused by anthropogenic activities, leading to less biodiverse communities dominated by specific species that are favoured by the eutrophic conditions.

Untangling biogeochemical processes from the impact of ocean circulation: First insight on the Mediterranean dissolved barium dynamics

Based on an unprecedented dissolved barium (D_Ba) data set collected in the Mediterranean Sea during a zonal transect between the Lebanon coast and Gibraltar (M84/3 cruise, April 2011), we decompose the D_Ba distribution to isolate the contribution of biogeochemical processes from the impact of the oceanic circulation. We have built a simple parametric water mass analysis (Parametric Optimum Multiparameter analysis) to reconstruct the contribution of the different Mediterranean water masses to the thermohaline structure. These water mass fractions have then been used to successfully reconstruct the background vertical gradient of D_Ba reflecting the balance between the large‐scale oceanic circulation and the biological activity over long time scales. Superimposed on the background field, several D_Ba anomalies have been identified. Positive anomalies are associated with topographic obstacles and may be explained by the dissolution of particulate biogenic barium (P_Ba barite) of material resuspended by the local currents. The derived dissolution rates range from 0.06 to 0.21 μmol m−2 d−1. Negative anomalies are present in the mesopelagic region of the western and eastern basins (except in the easternmost Levantine basin) as well as in the abyssal western basin. This represents the first quantification of the nonconservative component of the D_Ba signal. These mesopelagic anomalies could reflect the subtraction of D_Ba during P_Ba barite formation occurring during organic carbon remineralization. The deep anomalies may potentially reflect the transport of material toward the deep sea during winter deep convection and the subsequent remineralization. The D_Ba subtraction fluxes range from −0.07 to −1.28 μmol m−2 d−1. D_Ba‐derived fluxes of P_Ba barite (up to 0.21 μmol m−2 d−1) and organic carbon (13 to 29 mmol C m−2 d−1) are in good agreement with other independent measurements suggesting that D_Ba can help constrain remineralization horizons. This study highlights the importance of quantifying the impact of the large‐scale oceanic circulation in order to better understand the biogeochemical cycling of elements and to build reliable geochemical proxies.

Effects of organic pollution on environmental conditions and the phytoplankton community in the central Lebanese coastal waters with special attention to toxic algae

Organic pollution is a major global environmental issue for coastal ecosystems. In order to assess the effects of this pollution, environmental parameters and phytoplankton community were monitored during a two-year period (from April 2010 till March 2012) in the central coast of Lebanon in the Levantine Sub-basin. Data were collected for temperature, salinity, nutrients, chlorophyll-a and phytoplankton community. Temperature followed its normal seasonal and annual cycles, usually noted in the Lebanese coastal waters, whereas salinity varied spatially and temporally presenting sometimes low values due to continental inputs (19.07–39.6). Significant fluctuations of nutrients (N–NO2=0.004–4.28μML−1; N–NO3=0.25–39.15μML−1; P–PO4=0.014–5.77μML−1), Chl-a concentrations (0.03–8.9mg/m3) and density of total phytoplanktonic cells (40383–22.106cells/L) were observed between the sites and through the years (P<0.05). Environmental conditions were largely influenced by continental inputs. A perturbation of the natural phytoplanktonic succession and an occurrence of toxic or potentially harmful algae were noticed in the polluted sites, reflecting the influence of wastewater effluents on the coastal seawater equilibrium and thus on the Lebanese marine biodiversity. The overall study provides a good outline on the prevailing condition of few coastal areas which could facilitate the management of their pollution sources.

A Threatened Coast: Archaeology, Heritage and Development along the Northern Coast of Lebanon

A Threatened Coast: Archaeology, Heritage and Development along the Northern Coast of Lebanon

Ostreopsis fattorussoi sp. nov. (Dinophyceae), a new benthic toxic Ostreopsis species from the eastern Mediterranean Sea.

The new benthic toxic dinoflagellate, Ostreopsis fattorussoi sp. nov., is described from the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, Lebanon and Cyprus coasts, and is supported by morphological and molecular data. The plate formula, Po, 3', 7″, 6c, 7s, 5‴, 2'''', is typical for the Ostreopsis genus. It differs from all other Ostreopsis species in that (i) the curved suture between plates 1' and 3' makes them approximately hexagonal, (ii) the 1' plate lies in the left half of the epitheca and is obliquely orientated leading to a characteristic shape of plate 6″. The round thecal pores are bigger than the other two Mediterranean species (O. cf. ovata and O. cf. siamensis). O.fattorussoi is among the smallest species of the genus (DV: 60.07±5.63μm, AP: 25.66±2.97μm, W: 39.81±5.05μm) along with O.ovata. Phylogenetic analyses based on the LSU and internal transcribed spacer rDNA shows that O.fattorussoi belongs to the Atlantic/Mediterranean Ostreopsis spp. clade separated from the other Ostreopsis species. Ostreopsisfattorussoi produces OVTX-a and structural isomers OVTX-d and -e, O. cf. ovata is the only other species of this genus known to produce these toxins. The Lebanese O.fattorussoi did not produce the new palytoxin-like compounds (ovatoxin-i, ovatoxin-j1 , ovatoxin-j2 , and ovatoxin-k) that were previously found in O.fattorussoi from Cyprus. The toxin content was in the range of 0.28-0.94pg·cell-1 . On the Lebanon coast, O.fattorussoi was recorded throughout the year 2015 (temperature range 18°C-31.5°C), with peaks in June and August.

High xenodiversity versus low native diversity in the south-eastern Mediterranean: bryozoans from the coastal zone of Lebanon

Because of its location in the warmest corner of the Mediterranean, its proximity to the northern entrance of the Suez Canal, i.e. the gateway for massive exotic biota introduction into the Mediterranean, the occurrence of high shipping activity and strong human pressure, the Lebanese coastal zone is an area that is exceptionally well-suited for investigating the effects of these extreme conditions on Mediterranean biodiversity. Bryozoans, which are among the main components of sessile communities, reflect dramatically the impact of these particular conditions. Their assemblages, sampled by diving along the whole coast of Lebanon during a pluriannual programme, mainly between 1999 and 2003, consist of 93 species (12 Cyclostomata, 2 Ctenostomata, 79 Cheilostomata). The native part of this bryozoan fauna exhibits low diversity, with an unexpected absence of many taxa, from family to species level, which are very common in the rest of the Mediterranean. It is also characterized by a high proportion of endemic species, in contrast with the general eastward trend of decreasing endemicity observed in the Mediterranean, and by the strong presence of 'southern' thermophilic species. With 27 non-indigenous species, xenodiversity is exceptionally high, particularly in the cheilostome pool (26 species), but was likely undersampled. Moreover, one may assume that new non-indigenous bryozoans (NIB) are now established along the Levantine coasts. This trend is expected to increase in the near future with the intensification of surface water warming and boost of shipping activity and propagule flux generated by the expansion of the Suez Canal.

Red Sea fishes in the Mediterranean Sea: a preliminary investigation of a biological invasion using DNA barcoding

AbstractAimMore than 90 marine fish species in the Mediterranean have been determined to be alien species of Red Sea origin to date and therefore it is important to prioritize research into cataloguing their distribution and impacts. The aims of this study were to establish a barcode library for alien Mediterranean fishes of probable Red Sea origin and to initiate analyses of their invasion dynamics.LocationMediterranean Sea.MethodsSpecimens of exotic fishes were collected directly from the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Lebanon or obtained from fish markets in Lebanon. Samples were first identified morphologically and later barcoded using the universal cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) mitochondrial marker. Barcodes were compared with GenBank and BOLD database entries and analysed using genetic similarity indexes and neighbour‐joining distance trees.ResultsIn total, 156 specimens were collected, corresponding to 43 species. The sequence similarity between these sequences and their closest GenBank and BOLD matches ranged between 100% and 83.5%. The 2% genetic distance criterion, often used as a threshold for assigning positive species identification, was met for 31 of 43 (72%) alien species. Sequences from the remaining species (28%) matched species in the databases that were either in the same genus (congeneric) or in the same family (confamilial). In two cases, namely Plotosus lineatus and Sargocentron rubrum, barcoding revealed a possible species complex (P. lineatus) and multiple unrecognized species existing in the Mediterranean Sea (S. rubrum).Main conclusionsOur study presents a preliminary DNA barcode library, useful for identifying correctly alien fish species of Red Sea origin in the Mediterranean Sea. The results show that most species could be identified, yet the data also uncovered some taxa with unresolved taxonomy and possible cases of unrecognized or cryptic species invasions.

Biological traits suggest a niche overlap between two grapsid crabs sharing the rocky intertidal of the eastern Mediterranean

The current study investigated basic biological features for two co-occurring shore crabs Pachygrapsus marmoratus and P. transversus in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Differences in population structure, reproductive periods and settlement patterns were studied along the coast of Lebanon. Sizes of sampled individuals ranged from 4 to 37 mm carapace width (CW) for P. marmoratus and from 3.5 to 24 mm CW for P. transversus. Males were larger than females in both species, each of them exhibiting different size frequency distributions. Both male and female proportions were similar for P. marmoratus while males dominated the population of P. transversus. Fecundity and egg sizes were higher in P. marmoratus and fecundity was directly related to body size for the two crabs. Size structures differed between studied locations showing size restrictions for specific size-classes. Females from both species remained ovigerous for about 5 months, with P. transversus (May–August) started 1 month after P. marmoratus. Larger sized females displayed higher fecundities. The recruitment of juveniles lasted 5 months for both P. marmoratus (December–May) and P. transversus (November–April). Our results showed that niche partitioning occurred between the two species, where P. marmoratus starts incubating earlier than P. transversus while young of the year of the latter settle earlier on the reefs, taking advantage of convenient seawater temperatures and thus minimizing competition. This study shed some light on the populations of grapsid crabs living in the eastern Mediterranean and provided baseline information on the biology and ecology of the two congeneric shore crabs and their interactions.

Alien bryozoans in the eastern Mediterranean Sea--new records from the coast of Lebanon.

The Levant Basin (SE Mediterranean) is the most exposed to the introduction of non-indigenous species. The current assessment of exotic bryozoans present along the coast of Lebanon has been completed by the recording of fourteen cheilostome species (one cryptogenic) collected by diving in 17 localities (2-42 m). This set of exotic bryozoans comprises ten genera, including four (Akatopora Davis, 1934, Drepanophora Harmer, 1957, Mucropetraliella Stach, 1936 and Predanophora Tilbrook, 2006) not previously reported in the Mediterranean, while Celleporaria is the most successful extra-Mediterranean genus with four species in the survey collection. A new Celleporina species, C. bitari n. sp., also collected in the Red Sea, is described. Although lessepsian migration through the Suez Canal is the main pathway for exotic bryozoans in this region, the geographic origin of some species suggests that shipping through Gibraltar Strait is also responsible to a large extent.

Repeat hydrography in the Mediterranean Sea, data from the &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;Meteor&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; cruise 84/3 in 2011

Abstract. Here we report on data from an oceanographic cruise on the German research vessel Meteor covering large parts of the Mediterranean Sea during spring of 2011. The main objective of this cruise was to conduct measurements of physical, chemical and biological variables on a section across the Mediterranean Sea with the goal of producing a synoptic picture of the distribution of relevant physical and biogeochemical properties, in order to compare those to historic data sets. During the cruise, a comprehensive data set of relevant variables following the guide lines for repeat hydrography outlined by the GO-SHIP group (http://www.go-ship.org/) was collected. The measurements include salinity and temperature (CTD), an over-determined carbonate system, inorganic nutrients, oxygen, transient tracers (CFC-12, SF6), helium isotopes and tritium, and carbon isotopes. The cruise sampled all major basins of the Mediterranean Sea following roughly an east-to-west section from the coast of Lebanon through to the Strait of Gibraltar, and to the coast of Portugal. Also a south-to-north section from the Ionian Sea to the Adriatic Sea was carried out. Additionally, sampling in the Aegean, Adriatic and Tyrrhenian Seas were carried out. The sections roughly followed lines and positions that have been sampled previously during other programs, thus providing the opportunity for comparative investigations of the temporal development of various parameters.