Baja California Coast Research Articles

Gobiesox lanceolatus, a new species of clingfish (Teleostei: Gobiesocidae) from Los Frailes submarine canyon, Gulf of California, Mexico.

Gobiesox lanceolatus is described from a single specimen collected from 300 meters depth in the Los Frailes submarine canyon in the southwestern Gulf of California. The "Canyon Clingfish" is unique within Gobiesox in having a lanceolate caudal fin, with the central rays longer than those above and below them. It is also distinguished by 14 dorsal-fin rays (first tiny and unsegmented), 11 anal-fin rays, 28 pectoral-fin rays, anus slightly closer to anal-fin origin than to posterior margin of pelvic disc, and dorsal-fin origin in front of vertical from anus. It is most similar to Gobiesox eugrammus, known from Isla Guadelupe, the coast of outer Baja California and southern California. This is the deepest record for a species of Gobiesox and only four other species of clingfishes are known from greater depths.

Current methodological issues in archaeomalacological studies

Shell midden sites along the upper Gulf coast of Baja California contain abundant evidence of Indigenous subsistence practices and land use strategies reflecting the long history of local fisheries. Many of these sites contain well preserved faunal remains indicating people utilized a variety of littoral and marine habitats and exploited seasonal runs of the now endangered totoaba (Totoaba macdonaldi). We analyze totoaba otoliths recovered from eight archaeological sites along the upper Gulf coast with adjusted accelerated mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon date ranges spanning ~5700 to 125 cal BP. Integrating geochemical, biological, oceanographic, and archaeological datasets, this study investigates ~5700 years of Indigenous fishing practices and past marine environments by examining totoaba biogeography, population dynamics, season of harvest, and changes in water chemistry. Otolith morphometrics indicate that most (~78%) of the Indigenous catch consisted of yearlings and juveniles, reflecting more sustainable practices than commercial fisheries, which target larger, older, and more reproductively viable fish. Stable isotope results reveal slight oscillations in water chemistry between the Middle and Late Holocene and suggest shifts in salinity due to the extensive damming of the Colorado River in the past century. Our results contribute to regional paleoenvironmental reconstructions, the natural history of totoaba, and the growing body of data that suggest many Indigenous people engaged in localized sustainable fishing practices over thousands of years.

Spatial distribution of abalone (Haliotis fulgens and H. corrugata) and its time variability; implications for their management.

Abalone fisheries in the central pacific coast of Baja California relies on the exploitation of Haliotisfulgens (green abalone) and H. corrugata (pink abalone). Their catch is regulated under a quotas system annually assessed by the fisheries authority. Because they are sedentary species it is assumed that their density and biomass are roughly constant along the time. Thus, annual biomass assessments are realized only once a year. However, a central question emerges: whether this assumption is true, or density and biomass are changing even in a short time? To respond this question, submarine surveys were carried out at different times, in eight reefs along the same fixed sampling stations. Results showed that both the density and spatial distribution changed just after 24 and 72 h. Similar changes were observed 24 days later. Total abundance changed from 79 specimens at the beginning of the experiment to 46 at the end. In some sites, abundance falls less than 50 %. Changes in spatial distribution wereobserved commonly. The average of the minimum distance within the abalone patches was 0.5 m; however, most patches were only of 2 individuals. We conclude that it is necessary to undertake more than one annual survey assessment to attain average confident figures of density and biomass population, with less uncertainty. Furthermore,assessments should include measurement of size and frequency of the patches, which should be numerous enough to guarantee a successful reproduction, in-order-to maintain the stocks at a sustainable level.

Sea-level driven glacial-age refugia and post-glacial mixing on subtropical coasts, a palaeohabitat and genetic study.

Using a novel combination of palaeohabitat modelling and genetic mixture analyses, we identify and assess a sea-level-driven recolonization process following the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Our palaeohabitat modelling reveals dramatic changes in estuarine habitat distribution along the coast of California (USA) and Baja California (Mexico). At the LGM (approx. 20 kya), when sea level was approximately 130 m lower, the palaeo-shoreline was too steep for tidal estuarine habitat formation, eliminating this habitat type from regions where it is currently most abundant, and limiting such estuaries to a northern and a southern refugium separated by 1000 km. We assess the recolonization of estuaries formed during post-LGM sea-level rise through examination of refugium-associated alleles and approximate Bayesian computation in three species of estuarine fishes. Results reveal sourcing of modern populations from both refugia, which admix in the newly formed habitat between the refuges. We infer a dramatic peak in habitat area between 15 and 10 kya with subsequent decline. Overall, this approach revealed a previously undocumented dynamic and integrated relationship between sea-level change, coastal processes and population genetics. These results extend glacial refugial dynamics to unglaciated subtropical coasts and have significant implications for biotic response to predicted sea-level rise.

Distribution of the deep-sea genus Bathypterois (Pisces: Ipnopidae) in the Eastern Central Pacific.

The genus Bathypterois (tripod fish) comprises 19 species of deep-sea fishes distributed worldwide. The biology and distribution of the species of this genus are relatively poorly known throughout the Eastern Central Pacific (ECP). This work aims to update the geographic and bathymetric distribution of species of Bathypterois throughout the ECP. To describe the influence of depth, temperature and dissolved oxygen concentrations (DO) on latitudinal and depth distribution of members of the genus throughout the Mexican Pacific, 51 specimens of B. atricolor (12 trawls) and 112 of B. ventralis (18 trawls), collected during TALUD project, were analyzed. Bathypterois atricolor had broader environmental niches (depth: 0.47, temperature: 0.46, DO: 0.39), and inhabits deeper and colder sites (Electivity positives: > 1 000 m, < 3.2 °C, 1.0-1.62 mL/L) than B. ventralis, which had narrow environmental niches (depth: 0.34, temperature: 0.32, DO: 0.28), with high affinity to warmer sites and lower DO concentrations (Electivity positives: 778-1 400 m, 3.3-5.8 °C, < 1.0 mL/L). Both species used different environmental strata (niche overlap; depth: 0.34, temperature: 0.32, DO: 0.28). The adaptation of B. atricolor to live in a broad range of DO concentrations explains its almost circumglobal distribution, while B. ventralis lives almost permanently in the Oxygen Minimum Zone (< 0.05 mL/L), so the DO could be a limiting factor, reducing its potential geographic and bathymetric distributions. None of these species had been previously recorded in the central Gulf of California, and B. ventralis had not been recorded along the West coast of Baja California. This study confirms that both species have a continuous distribution within the ECP, our new records extended the known northernmost range for B. atricolor by 886 km (from 22°46' N to 30°45’ N) and for B. ventralis by 645 km (from 21°18’ N to 27°07’ N).

The Pinnotheridae of the northeastern Pacific (Alaska to Mexico): zoogeographical remarks and new bivalve hosts (Crustacea, Brachyura, Pinnotheridae).

New bivalve host records for four pinnotherid crabs of the Mexican Pacific are reported: Fabia subquadrata Dana, 1851, in Modiolus capax (Conrad, 1837); Opisthopus transversus Rathbun, 1893, in Tivela stultorum (Mawe, 1823); Pinnaxodes gigas (Green, 1992), in Pinna rugosa (Sowerby, 1835), and Panopea generosa Gould, 1850; and Tumidotheres margarita (Smith, 1870), in Nodipecten subnodosus (Sowerby, 1835). The southernmost distribution of F. subquadrata is extended to about 600 km along the west coast of the Baja California Peninsula; the distribution of P. gigas is extended outside the Gulf of California more than 1000 km north to San Quintín, on the west coast of Baja California; and the range of T. margarita is restricted on the west coast of Baja California to Scammon´s Lagoon, Baja California Sur and Playa Kino Viejo, Sonora in the central region of the Gulf of California, Mexico to Panama. Based on the new material, new information on taxonomy, ecology, and life history is provided for each of these species. Pinnotheres nudus Holmes, 1895 is restored as a valid species and is removed from its synonymy with O. transversus. An updated checklist with remarks on zoogeography for the 60 pinnotherid species, included in 23 genera, of the northeastern Pacific region (Alaska to the Mexican tropical Pacific) is given.

A “Shark Encounter”: Delayed Primary Closure and Prophylactic Antibiotic Treatment of a Great White Shark Bite

BackgroundShark bites are rare but sensational injuries that are covered in the lay press but are not well described in the medical literature. Case ReportWe present the case of a 50-year-old man who sustained two deep puncture wounds to his thigh from a great white shark in the waters surrounding Isla de Guadalupe off the coast of Baja California, Mexico, during a caged SCUBA dive. Why Should An Emergency Physician be Aware of This?We discuss our strategy of closing the wounds in a delayed primary fashion 24 hours after injury, our antibiotic choices, and the patient's course and review marine pathogens and appropriate antibiotic coverage.

Unusual records of deepwater teleosteans trawled off the western coast of Mexico

The first records of three midwater species for the Mexican ichthyofauna (Holtbyrnia laticauda, Brama dussumieri and Cubiceps baxteri), caught off the coast of Baja California, Mexico, in mid 2014, are reported. As far as is known, they are the first verified specimens, geo-referenced and catalogued in a reference fish collection for the west coast of Mexico. The species' known distributions were extended northward in the eastern Pacific Ocean, ranging from 3495 to 8300 km.

Contrasts in the movements and habitat use of juvenile and adult white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) at Guadalupe Island, Mexico

Although the effort in the study of white sharks in Mexico is rapidly elucidating adult biology, almost nothing is known about the juveniles. Current understanding of this life history is based largely on the incidental take of juveniles in nursery grounds in the Pacific coast of Baja California and some individuals tagged in the USA that have migrated to Mexican waters. Also, it is not known how or when they recruit to adult aggregation sites or how they learn to make seasonal migrations offshore. Five white sharks were manually tracked using ultrasonic transmitters with depth and temperature sensors between 2006 and 2007. Additional white sharks were tagged (N = 60) with long-lived coded transmitters and detected at listening stations located on the west coast of the United States of America and Guadalupe Island (GI) from August 2008 to October 2015. We found that: (1) juvenile white sharks remained close to the island throughout the day between the surface and 50 m depth in warm waters (from 14 to 20 °C), whereas the adults moved offshore into deep waters during the day and stayed close to the island during the night presenting a broader tolerance of colder waters (from 9 to 20 °C); (2) tagged white sharks had a positive correlation between total length and habitat range, and the core areas of adults were related to pinniped colonies; (3) adults patrolled in deep waters in November and December when the northern elephant seals (NESs) returned back to the island for pupping with their mean mass higher than during the winter post-breeding migration; (4) tagged juvenile white sharks remained near the island for 12–14 months before departing; and (5) tagged subadults undertook coastal migrations before starting their offshore migrations. The data collected in our study suggest that white shark juveniles arrive to GI from nursery grounds on the mainland after they have reached at least 180 cm TL; then, they remained around the island for several months, potentially taking advantage of the diversity of prey. In addition, they may start their first offshore migrations, coming back to their nursery grounds and GI before they reach maturity, while at GI juveniles stayed close to the shore and in shallow water to avoid adults, probably feeding on demersal prey and species that perform nocturnal migrations such as squid and mackerel. It is argued that the distribution of the large white sharks in GI is controlled by the availability of NES and that adult white sharks look for this prey in deep waters during the day in the vicinity of the seal colonies, taking advantage of the great visibility of GI waters. It is also possible that white sharks take advantage of NES in GI before they go to their pupping grounds to give birth in California and Baja California or to their offshore migration to the west.

Evolution of the 2014–2015 sea surface temperature warming in the central west coast of Baja California, Mexico, recorded by remote sensing

AbstractExtraordinarily warm sea surface temperatures were present in the California Current System during 2014–2015. In several locations surface waters temperature registered new record high in the recent time series. This study focuses in the evolution of the warming in the southern part of the California Current System (CCS), off the west coast of Baja California, Mexico. Analysis of monthly sea surface temperature (SST), sea level pressure, and wind speed as measured by satellite from January 1988 to December 2015 show that recent warming occurred during two distinct periods. From May 2014 to April 2015, SST warming was related to weak coastal winds not associated to El Niño. During this period occurred the longest sustained record of 15 months of negative wind anomalies in the series. A reduction of wind stress suggests a weakened coastal upwelling, and consequently, cold water not transported into the surface. The second process of warming occurred from September to December 2015, during a strong El Niño condition.

PATHOGENIC LEPTOSPIRA SEROVARS IN FREE-LIVING SEA LIONS IN THE GULF OF CALIFORNIA AND ALONG THE BAJA CALIFORNIA COAST OF MEXICO.

The California sea lion ( Zalophus californianus ), a permanent inhabitant of the Gulf of California in Mexico, is susceptible to pathogenic Leptospira spp. infection, which can result in hepatic and renal damage and may lead to renal failure and death. During summer 2013, we used the microscopic agglutination test (MAT) to investigate the prevalence of anti-Leptospira antibodies in blood of clinically healthy sea lion pups from seven rookery islands on the Pacific Coast of Baja California (Pacific Ocean) and in the Gulf of California. We also used PCR to examine blood for Leptospira DNA. Isolation of Leptospira in liquid media was unsuccessful. We found higher antibody prevalence in sea lions from the rookery islands in the gulf than in those from the Pacific Coast. Antibodies against 11 serovars were identified in the Gulf of California population; the most frequent reactions were against serovars Bataviae (90%), Pyrogenes (86%), Wolffi (86%), Celledoni (71%), and Pomona (65%). In the Pacific Ocean population, MAT was positive against eight serovars, where Wolffi (88%), Pomona (75%), and Bataviae (70%) were the most frequent. Serum samples agglutinated with more than one Leptospira serovar. The maximum titer was 3,200. Each island had a different serology profile, and islands combined showed a distinct profile for each region. We detected pathogenic Leptospira DNA in 63% of blood samples, but we found no saprophytic Leptospira. Positive PCR results were obtained in blood samples with high and low MAT titers. Together, these two methods enhance the diagnosis and interpretation of sea lion leptospirosis. Our results may be related to human activities or the presence of other reservoirs with which sea lions interact, and they may also be related to sea lion stranding.

Composición y estructura de las comunidades de poliquetos (Annelida) asociadas a fondos blandos de la costa occidental de la península de Baja California, México

Polychaetes are one of the most important groups of the benthos from any point of view. The present study aims to characterize the species richness of polychaete fauna of the West Coast of Baja California, from the mouth of Magdalena Bay to Punta Colonet. Collections were made by the Oceanographic Cruise SIMSUP VIII. We compared the number of families and species collected both bathymetricaly and latitudinally, we also performed a diversity analysis using several indexes such as alpha diversity, Pielou evenness, Simpson dominance and specific dominance. A total of 60stations were revised, 30 of these were positive, finding 3,709specimens grouped in 11orders, 27families, 62genera and 99species. Spionidae has the highest richness with 4genera and 12species (12.2% of global diversity and 42.7% of the relative abundance) for a total of 1,583 specimens. Paraprionospio pinnata was the most abundant, frequent and dominant species (24.2% of all specimens). Of the total sample, 53.8% belong to the central zone, 26.9% to the southern one and 19.2% to the northern one. The highest richness (85.9%) and abundance (62.8%) correspond to the central zone.

From Ranching to Fishing – The Cultural Landscape of the Northern Pacific Coast of Baja California, Mexico

From Ranching to Fishing – The Cultural Landscape of the Northern Pacific Coast of Baja California, Mexico

Current status of the California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) and the northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris) at the San Benito Archipelago, Mexico

The California sea lion (CSL) and the northern elephant seal (NES) are the two most abundant pinniped species inhabiting the San Benito Archipelago (Baja California, Mexico). This study reports the results of the first survey to gather abundance information from continuous breeding seasons (2012–2015) and over the course of a single year (2014). Relative to the previous year, the abundance of CSLs declined in July 2014; however, based on historical censuses, the colony at the archipelago was catalogued as “stable”. Intra-annually, the CSL abundance was regulated by pups and adult females, which reached their peak during the breeding season (July). Moreover, we hypothesize that subadult males from the west coast of Baja California enter the Gulf of California. The NES fluctuations were most affected by the breeding season (February), when the number of pups and adult females peaked, and by the important presence of juveniles in May and September. The NES colony at the archipelago was catalogued as “in decline”, based on previous countings. This high-resolution survey complements past and future studies in the region, and adds another dimension to our understanding of these species, which is largely based on information from their main rookeries in California.

Influence of Hydrographic Conditions on the Distribution of Spiny Lobster Larvae off the West Coast of Baja California

AbstractThe distribution of phyllosoma of California spiny lobster Panulirus interruptus was investigated in relation to the seasonal variability of hydrographic conditions off the west coast of the Baja California Peninsula between 2006 and 2008. Early larval stages were recorded mostly from summer to fall, immediately following the reproductive period. The duration of larval development in plankton is variable (8–12 months), and hence, larvae are found at different times of the year; thus, intermediate and late stages did not show a well‐defined seasonal pattern. The highest phyllosoma density was associated with the relatively warm transitional water mass. However, the peak frequency of occurrence was observed in the colder subarctic water mass. A canonical correspondence analysis identified two distinct seasonal periods: (1) a warm period (summer–autumn), when the abundance of early and intermediate stages was highly correlated with a higher sea surface temperature, and (2) a cold period (winter–spring), when the most advanced stages were associated with a lower water temperature and higher dissolved oxygen. The distribution of larvae and the geostrophic flow patterns suggest that transport by the California Current and mesoscale eddies are the primary dispersal and retention mechanisms from the various breeding centers along the peninsula: northern (Ensenada–Punta Baja), central (Punta Eugenia), and southern (Golfo de Ulloa). In contrast, the data obtained suggest that the recruitment of late larval stages and pueruli in settlement areas might be regulated by the formation of meanders and poleward currents, in addition to the ability of pueruli (self‐recruitment) to reach settlement areas via swimming.

First Description of Symbionts, Parasites, and Diseases of the Pacific GeoduckPanopea generosafrom the Pacific Coast of Baja California, Mexico

The Pacific geoduck Panopea generosa is distributed along the Pacific coast of the peninsula of Baja California, Mexico. Because of its high market value, this species has been under an intensive fishery pressure during the last few years, whereas its experimental aquaculture production is still developing. The fishery and culture practices point to the movement of clams as a risk factor for dispersion of symbionts, parasites, and diseases. Wild geoduck clams from fishery captures are sent to facilities that maintain clams alive, before marketing. Some of them show external abnormalities such as weakness and flaccidity, blisters, and darkening and thickening of the mantle surface and siphon. The objective of this study was to determinate if these abnormalities were related to parasites or diseases through conventional parasitological and histological analyses. The parasitological analysis showed two species of copepods, Pseudomyicola spinosus and a calanoid species in the mantle cavity and gills; additionally, a turbellarian species was also observed in the mantle cavity, none of these symbionts were related to tissue damage. The histological analysis showed that some weak-flaccid clams were in a postspawning condition. The dark and thick areas of the siphon and mantle suffered a dramatic transformation of the periostracum into a cavernous structure with numerous protozoans in different developmental stages. Fungi were occasionally observed in the external area of the periostracum. Unusual mortalities were reported by producers in clams with this abnormality. Rickettsia-like inclusions and trematodes were found in the digestive gland associated with limited damage to the host. The darkening and thickening of the siphon represent a major issue because of the negative appearance of the clams, which prevents its sale and is possibly related to the unusual mortality episodes. Detailed field and laboratory studies are needed to determine the origin of this pathology as well as its distribution and effect on the survival of the host. Moreover, field studies on the distribution, prevalence, and intensity of the other symbionts and parasites here detected are needed. These data constitute the first record for organisms associated with P. generosa in Mexico and a baseline for future studies.

Metapopulation structure informs conservation management in a heavily exploited coastal shark (Mustelus henlei)

The identification of historical, environmental and biological factors influencing metapopulation connectivity is important for informing management policies and for designing conservation areas to protect biodiversity. The brown smooth-hound shark Mustelus henlei is a key component of the Mexican commercial shark fisheries, one of the largest in the world. However, Mexico lacks conservation management policies for this heavily exploited species. We conducted phylogeographic and population genetic analyses using data from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers and from oceanographic variables to assess metapopulation connectivity in M. henlei from the Gulf of California and the Pacific coast of Baja California. We report on historical range expansion during the Pleistocene, probably associated with the last stages of formation of the Gulf of California. From a contemporary perspective, there is significant population structure explained by spatial distance (but not by environmental factors), which contrasts with expectations of high dispersal capacity for this shark. Populationand individual-based genetic analyses suggest that both female philopatry and male-biased dispersal impact on metapopulation structure. These results highlight the importance of protecting nursery areas and habitat connectivity for the conservation management of the species. Our study clarifies important biological aspects of the brown smooth-hound shark that have implications for the design of shark management policies and marine protected areas in the Gulf of California, an iconic marine ecosystem of global significance.

A Tale of Three Tails: Cryptic Speciation in a Globally Distributed Marine Fish of the GenusSeriola

Genetic data are increasingly being applied to re-evaluate past taxonomic hypotheses and better understand the evolutionary patterns and connectivity among regional populations of cosmopolitan species. This is of particular importance for heavily exploited, commercially important species. The phylogenetic structure of the Yellowtail Jack, Seriola lalandi Valenciennes, 1833, was investigated using genetic data from 42 individuals collected from California, the Pacific coast of Baja California (Mexico), the Gulf of California (Mexico), New Zealand, Japan, South Africa, and Chile. An analysis using S. dumerili as an outgroup and combining the sequences of two mitochondrial genes (CR and COI) and four nuclear genes (RAG2, EHHADH, UBE3A, MLL) was used to determine the level of genetic divergence among samples from different geographic regions. Bayesian and Maximum Likelihood analyses utilizing combined mitochondrial gene (mtDNA) or nuclear gene (nucDNA) data supported the existence of multiple regionally restricted clades with mtDNA analysis identifying four major clades and nucDNA supporting three. Both mtDNA and nucDNA trees were very similar in topology, which was reflected in the combined total evidence phylogram. These clades were highly supported with Bayesian posterior and bootstrap probabilities ranging from 90 to 100 percent for the three major clades that were recovered in both mtDNA and nucDNA trees. These clades represent regionally specific specimens collected from the 1) Northeast Pacific, 2) Northwest Pacific, and 3) Southern Hemisphere. Morphometric analysis (MDS and ANOSIM) of available meristic data on the number of soft dorsal-fin rays, anal-fin rays, and total number of gill rakers separated specimens among the three regions identified by genetic analysis (P = 0.05). Based on the phylogenetic structure within this taxonomic unit as evidenced by genetic data and significant meristic differences among these regional lineages, we conclude that three cryptic species currently bear the name Seriola lalandi Valenciennes, 1833. We propose the resurrection of two currently available names based on nomenclatural priority. The Northwest Pacific species name should revert to Seriola aureovittata Temminck and Schlegel (1845) (type locality Japan), and the Northeast Pacific species to Seriola dorsalis Gill (1863) (type locality Cabo San Lucas, Mexico). Seriola lalandi Valenciennes, 1833 (type locality Brazil) should apply only to the species in the Southern Hemisphere.

Spatial and temporal occurrence of fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) and euphausiids (Nyctiphanes simplex) in the Ballenas Channel, Gulf of California, Mexico

Fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) are observed year-round in the Ballenas Channel and Bahía de los Ángeles region, Gulf of California, where their main food item is the euphausiid Nyctiphanes simplex. This investigation was designed under the hypothesis that the spatial and temporal occurrence of whales and euphausiids coincides. The aim was to establish the geographic, seasonal, and interannual changes in the abundance of the fin whale and its main prey in the region during 2003 and 2004. Four field trips were carried out per year. Surveys to search for whales and carry out horizontal surface tows were conducted from small boats. Fin whales and euphausiids were mainly observed off the coast of Baja California and in the southern Ballenas Channel. Their abundance varied significantly from one season to another in both years. The highest relative abundance of whales occurred in July (warm season), followed by June (cold–warm transition period) and March–April (cold season), and the lowest in October (late warm season). Euphausiid abundance was significantly higher in June (cold–warm transition period), followed by July (warm season). There was no direct correlation between weekly abundances of both species, probably because whale peak abundance occurred four weeks later than euphausiid peak abundance. Fin whale relative abundance was significantly higher in 2004 than in 2003 (2.22 and 0.46 whales h–1, respectively), but euphausiid abundance remained almost the same (geometric means 255 and 174 ind/1000 m3). Even though there was no weekly correlation between both species, their geographic distribution did overlap.

Franciscanos eminentes en territorios de fronteras ed. by Amaya Cabranes and Thomas Calvo (review)

Reviewed by: Franciscanos eminentes en territorios de fronteras ed. by Amaya Cabranes and Thomas Calvo Asunción Lavrin Franciscanos eminentes en territorios de fronteras. Edited by Amaya Cabranes and Thomas Calvo. ( Michoacán: El Colegio de Michoacán and El Colegio de San Luis. 2014. Pp. 235. $12.00 paperback. ISBN 978-607-8257-78-2.) By the mid-seventeenth century, the enthusiasm and energy that characterized the first generation of mendicant friars who arrived in Mexico to Christianize the indigenous population had declined for many reasons. Although the central and southern areas proved to be more amenable to Spanish settlement and Christianization, in the far north and west the various nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes proved a challenge for evangelizers. The swell of Christianization that seemed so inevitable in the sixteenth century slowed down, and the missionaries had to fight inch by inch to gain converts as well as territory. The personal recollections of two Franciscans engaged in that process form the core of this work. The documents transcribed and edited by the very capable team of Amaya Cabranes and Thomas Calvo belonged to two men who had little in common except [End Page 694] the desire to add numbers to the meager crop of converts to Christianity in lands still in the hands of “apostates” and “gentiles.” Newly arrived missionary Juan Caballero Carranco narrates a frustrating trip to the coast of Baja California in 1669 led by a man whose main interest was to find pearls. The Franciscan longed to assess the potential for conversion among the scattered population but turned out to be better at registering the incidents of the voyage, its men, and the geography of the area than at proselytizing. He was also a frustrated policy maker. His description of the spiritual and material needs of the Cora tribes in the Sonora and Nayarit area reveal a well-thought plan to supplant the Jesuits and carry out a broad sweep to attract and retain the resilient Indians into the fold of the Church. He represents the idealistic men traveling from Spain to fulfill a personal as well as a religious mission in the belief that all they needed was a well-planned policy to conquer all obstacles. The second friar, Juan González Cordero, tended to his flock on the northwest frontiers of central Mexico (Queretaro, San Miguel, Celaya) from the 1630s to the 1660s. He personified the established parish missionary who performed his duties for years among people who, although official Christian converts, were still engaged in what he called “superstitious” practices. His detailed description of how he proselytized and attempted to guard the purity of Christian beliefs records the practices of the indigenous flock and the endeavors of their guardian. It was an unsettled situation that gave shamans the opportunity to continue practicing their arts and made the missionary’s life one of constant struggle among presumed Christians and non-Christians. González Cordero, almost unaware of his role, left a rich source of information for future ethnologists. The careful introductory comments of the editors underline the importance of preconceived ideas among the evangelizers and the strong pull of the land on the process of evangelization. Calvo and Cabranes define the work of the missionaries as carving physical and spiritual frontiers. They have rendered a great service to historians of the evangelization of northern and central Mexico with the publication of these rich and previously unknown sources. Calvo has made a specialty of unearthing documents about the northwest region of Mexico, which he has published in previous works on the history of that region. Calvo and Cambranes call our attention to the fact that these two narratives are as much mirrors of the missionaries as pictures of the fragility of Catholicism. Still challenged by native “men-gods” attracting subversive practices, the religious landscape of the area, 150 years after the conquest, was still in a state of flux between acceptance and rejection, and between still-active old autochthonous traditions and the stubborn determination of men of the cloth to eradicate them, as they believed their faith required. It was a confrontation that had not yet reached a resolution. As the editors point out...