Coaching Process Research Articles

Developing and Applying a New Instrument for Microanalysis of the Coaching Process: The Coaching Process Q‐Set

This paper presents the results of a project aimed at the development and the use of an instrument designed to identify differences and similarities across coaching approaches at the level of a specific coaching session. 41 professional coaches described one of their typical coaching sessions using this instrument and found it comprehensive. Q‐mode Factor analysis suggests that there was one overarching shared viewpoint about the way a mid‐engagement coaching session is typically facilitated. This suggests that there may be considerable similarities in how coaching is actually practiced in spite of the existence of a variety of coaching traditions, genres and contexts in which coaching takes place, leading to one extended conceptual definition of coaching. We suggest that the tool makes possible a number of research projects, allows a clearer understanding of services typically provided by contracted coaches and assists in self‐evaluation of professional and ‘on‐the‐job’ types of coaching.

Preventive health coaching: is there room to be more prescriptive?

Objectives: Health coaching is gaining prominence in chronic diseases management, treatment adherence and more recently, in the area of preventive health. In Australia, the Get Healthy Information and Coaching Service (GHS) is a preventive health coaching service with demonstrated outcome effectiveness. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the process of health coaching. Design: The study (n = 61) involved analysis of audio recordings of coaching calls at time points during the six-month coaching program. A coaching call review instrument was developed specifically to assess: goal setting, relationship building, information exchange and education, behavioral modification techniques, emotional management, and GHS content-specific information. Methods: Two reviewers were randomly assigned to review the calls. Descriptive analyses were performed on coaching domain variables and coaching behavior variables as collected by the instrument. Results: The results indicate that the GHS coaches incorporated goal setting, information exchange and education, and relationship building moderately in their coaching interactions. Behavior modification and emotional management were incorporated to a lesser extent. GHS reference material was rarely mentioned and there were significant differences based on when the coaching call occurred; such that realistic weight loss and reference to the GHS materials were more likely to be mentioned in weeks 0–4 (p < 0.05; and p < 0.001 respectively). Conclusions: There is an opportunity for preventive health coaching to be more prescriptive and directive through maximizing the accountability of goals, referencing evidence-based materials more often, providing more information and education, and managing the coaching process to stimulate action.

Understanding Cognitive-Emotional Processing Through a Coaching Process

This study is based on intentional change theory and supports cognitive-emotion and social complexity perspectives regarding positive and negative affect. We examine how a coaching experience guided by a specific theoretical approach within a leadership development program at a European business school influences cognitive-emotional processing of MBA students with regard to their levels of personal vision comprehensiveness and strength, goal-directed energy, and resilience. A within-subjects pre–post Non-Equivalent Dependent Variables design with a total of 76 students was conducted using survey methods. A rigorous analysis sheds light on how intentional change theory–based coaching enhances individual self-development processes. Participants stated higher levels of personal vision, goal-directed energy, and resilience postcoaching. A series of moderator effects were identified regarding the quality of the coaching connection (i.e., overall emotional saliency) and the general self-efficacy of participants. Implications concerning how coaching processes may be enriched through the establishment of high-quality coaching connections are discussed.

The microstructure of coaching practice: behaviours and activities of an elite rugby union head coach during preparation and competition

The activities and behaviours of a female head coach of a national rugby union team were recorded in both training and competition, across a whole rugby season, using the newly developed Rugby Coach Activities and Behaviours Instrument (RCABI). The instrument incorporates 24 categories of behaviour, embedded within three forms of activity (training form (TF), playing form (PF) and competitive match) and seven sub-activity types. In contrast to traditional drill-based coaching, 58.5% of the training time was found to have been spent in PF activities. Moreover, the proportion of PF activities increased to a peak average of 83.8% in proximity to the team’s annual international championship. Uniquely, one of the coach’s most prolific behaviours was conferring with associates (23.3%), highlighting the importance of interactions with assistant coaches, medical staff and others in shaping the coaching process. Additionally, the frequencies of key behaviours such as questioning and praise were found to vary between the different activity forms and types, raising questions about previous conceptions of effective coaching practice. The findings are discussed in the light of the Game Sense philosophy and the role of the head coach.

The Transition from Match Analysis to Intervention: Optimising the Coaching Process in Elite Futsal

The aim of this study was to investigate how elite Futsal coaches use match analysis tools. Six elite coaches from the top Portuguese Futsal League participated. Interviews were conducted and data were analysed through content analysis using QSR NVivo10 software. All coaches prepared for games in a systematic way using the observational process. Thus, they carefully selected highly skilled analyst, and defined a list of indicators to be observed/analysed in games. Coaches stated that the most important aspects to observe in the game are: i) the global dynamics; ii) the key moments of the game; iii) set pieces; iv) individual characteristics of players. Although coaches use both quantitative/qualitative data, they primary focus their attention using qualitative analysis of the game. Coaches evaluate both their own team and that of the opposition by focusing on strengths/weaknesses/opportunities and follow a specific logic of prioritisating this in team meetings throughout the week. The interventions applied mainly come in the form of specific training exercises and video analysis. During the game, coaches typically provide feedback continously during the game, in addition to communicating using gestures. Time-outs are a partcularly unique aspect of futsal and these are used intellegently to correct strategic and emotional factors in addition to fatigue.

Coaching to vision versus coaching to improvement needs: a preliminary investigation on the differential impacts of fostering positive and negative emotion during real time executive coaching sessions.

Drawing on intentional change theory (ICT; Boyatzis, 2006), this study examined the differential impact of inducing coaching recipients’ vision/positive emotion versus improvement needs/negative emotion during real time executive coaching sessions. A core aim of the study was to empirically test two central ICT propositions on the effects of using the coached person’s Positive Emotional Attractor (vision/PEA) versus Negative Emotional Attractor (improvement needs/NEA) as the anchoring framework of a onetime, one-on-one coaching session on appraisal of 360° feedback and discussion of possible change goals. Eighteen coaching recipients were randomly assigned to two coaching conditions, the coaching to vision/PEA condition and the coaching to improvement needs/NEA condition. Two main hypotheses were tested. Hypothesis1 predicted that participants in the vision/PEA condition would show higher levels of expressed positive emotion during appraisal of 360° feedback results and discussion of change goals than recipients in the improvement needs/NEA condition. Hypothesis2 predicted that vision/PEA participants would show lower levels of stress immediately after the coaching session than improvement needs/NEA participants. Findings showed that coaching to vision/the PEA fostered significantly lower levels of expressed negative emotion and anger during appraisal of 360° feedback results as compared to coaching to improvements needs/the NEA. Vision-focused coaching also fostered significantly greater exploration of personal passions and future desires, and more positive engagement during 360° feedback appraisal. No significant differences between the two conditions were found in emotional processing during discussion of change goals or levels of stress immediately after the coaching session. Current findings suggest that vision/PEA arousal versus improvement needs/NEA arousal impact the coaching process in quite different ways; that the coach’s initial framing of the session predominantly in the PEA (or, alternatively, predominantly in the NEA) fosters emotional processing that is driven by this initial framing; and that both the PEA (and associated positive emotions) and NEA (and associated negative emotions) play an important and recurrent role in shaping the change process. Further study on these outcomes will enable researchers to shed more light on the differential impact of the PEA versus NEA on intentional change, and how to leverage the benefits of both emotional attractors. Findings also suggest that coaches can benefit from better understanding the importance of tapping intrinsic motivation and personal passions through coaching to vision/the PEA. Coaches additionally may benefit from better understanding how to leverage the long-term advantages, and restorative benefits, of positive emotions during coaching engagements. The findings also highlight coaches’ need to appreciate the impact of timing effects on coaching intentional change, and how coaches can play a critical role in calibrating the pace and focus of work on intentional change. Early arousal of the coachee’s PEA, accompanied by recurrent PEA–NEA induction, may help coachees be/become more creative, optimistic, and resilient during a given change process. Overall, primary focus on vision/PEA and secondary focus on improvement needs/NEA may better equip coaches and coaching recipients to work together on building robust learning, development, and change. Keywords-133pt executive coaching, vision, improvement needs, positive emotion, negative emotion, emotional appraisal, intentional change, positive psychology

Effects of a Triadic Parent-Implemented Home-Based Communication Intervention for Toddlers

A series of three multiple-baseline single-case studies with replication across nine parent–child dyads was used to evaluate the effects of a parent-implemented communication intervention on parent and child communication for toddlers with Down syndrome, autism spectrum disorder, and developmental delays. Interventionists coached parents to implement communication strategies and supports in family-identified routines over 24 intervention sessions. Parents demonstrated increased responsive and modeling strategy use, and children exhibited higher rates of targeted communication forms from baseline to intervention phases. For eight of the nine dyads, the gains increased across the intervention phase, and effects were carried over into the maintenance phase. The results support the use of triadic parent-implemented communication interventions that can be implemented in the early intervention system. Clinical and research implications of teaching parents of toddlers with various etiologies to use responsive and modeling strategies through a collaborative family-guided coaching process are discussed.

Teacher Competency Development: Teaching with Tablet Technology through Classroom Innovative Action Research (CIAR) Coaching Process

Thai government implemented a technology policy entitled “One Tablet Per Child” (OTPC) aimed at preparing Thai students to become a competitive world citizen. To accelerate teacher competencies, CIAR (Classroom Innovative Action Research) coaching process was developed to reach the optimum goal of teachers’ competencies and students’ learning outcomes including; (1) Teachers’ profile assessment (2) Academic integrity (3) Classroom technological challenge (4) Peer coaching (5) Reflection and (6) Publishing. Mix method research design was applied throughout the study, detailed the cumulative findings of teachers’ profiles and competencies as well as students’ learning outcomes. The findings of this study ensure the CIAR coaching process to be an effective nation wide teacher professional development program.

Applying generalizability theory to examine the antecedents of perceived coach support.

Although social support is integral to the coaching process, there is only a limited understanding of the antecedents of perceived coach support. We applied generalizability theory to examine perceived coach support and its antecedents at perceiver, provider, and relational levels of analysis. Two studies were conducted in which athletes rated the degree to which they identified with a selection of coaches, and the personality, competency, and supportiveness of those coaches. Univariate analyses demonstrated that the relational component accounted for a significant amount of variance in perceived coach support in both studies. Multivariate analyses demonstrated that when athletes perceive specific coaches to be highly agreeable, competent, and individuals with whom they share a common identity, they also perceive these same coaches to be particularly supportive in comparison with other coaches.

Transforming Farm Health and Safety: The Case for Business Coaching.

In the U.S. and Australia, agriculture is consistently ranked as one of the most hazardous industries. The cost of injuries and deaths on Australian farms is significant, estimated to be between AU$0.5 billion and AU$1.2 billion per year. Death and injury in agriculture also place a significant financial and social burden on the family and friends of the injured, the community, and the health system. This article proposes that if farmers were to employ coaching in their businesses, they would benefit from advances in safety practices, resulting in associated improvements in overall farm productivity and a reduction in injury costs to the wider community. A coaching model is presented to demonstrate what an effective coaching process would need to include. An agenda for future research areas is also provided.

Coaching philosophy and its developmental process of college basketball coaches

Coaching philosophy and its developmental process of college basketball coaches

Iterative Training of Dynamic Skills Inspired by Human Coaching Techniques

Inspired by how humans learn dynamic motor skills through a progressive process of coaching and practices, we introduce an intuitive and interactive framework for developing dynamic controllers. The user only needs to provide a primitive initial controller and high-level, human-readable instructions as if s/he is coaching a human trainee, while the character has the ability to interpret the abstract instructions, accumulate the knowledge from the coach, and improve its skill iteratively. We introduce “control rigs” as an intermediate layer of control module to facilitate the mapping between high-level instructions and low-level control variables. Control rigs also utilize the human coach's knowledge to reduce the search space for control optimization. In addition, we develop a new sampling-based optimization method, Covariance Matrix Adaptation with Classification (CMA-C), to efficiently compute-control rig parameters. Based on the observation of human ability to “learn from failure”, CMA-C utilizes the failed simulation trials to approximate an infeasible region in the space of control rig parameters, resulting a faster convergence for the CMA optimization. We demonstrate the design process of complex dynamic controllers using our framework, including precision jumps, turnaround jumps, monkey vaults, drop-and-rolls, and wall-backflips.

The wider context of performance analysis and it application in the football coaching process

The evolving role of PA and the associated proliferation of positions and internships within high performance sport has driven consideration for a change, or at least a broadening, of emphasis for use of PA analysis. In order to explore the evolution of PA from both an academic and practitioner perspective this paper considers the wider conceptual use of PA analysis. In establishing this, the paper has 4 key aims: (1) To establish working definitions of PA and where it sits within the contemporary sports science and coaching process continuum; (2) To consider how PA is currently used in relation to data generation; (3) To explore how PA could be used to ensure transfer of information, and; (4) To give consideration to the practical constrains potentially faced by coach and analyst when implementing PA strategies in the future.

Integration of professional judgement and decision-making in high-level adventure sports coaching practice

This study examined the integration of professional judgement and decision-making processes in adventure sports coaching. The study utilised a thematic analysis approach to investigate the decision-making practices of a sample of high-level adventure sports coaches over a series of sessions. Results revealed that, in order to make judgements and decisions in practice, expert coaches employ a range of practical and pedagogic management strategies to create and opportunistically use time for decision-making. These approaches include span of control and time management strategies to facilitate the decision-making process regarding risk management, venue selection, aims, objectives, session content, and differentiation of the coaching process. The implication for coaches, coach education, and accreditation is the recognition and training of the approaches that “create time” for the judgements in practice, namely “creating space to think”. The paper concludes by offering a template for a more expertise-focused progression in adventure sports coaching.

Toward a Theory of Coaching Paradox

Multiple tensions exist as part of the coaching process. How a coach responds to these tensions is a fundamental determinant of an athlete or team’s fate. In today’s highly competitive, socially demanding, and ever-changing sports environment, and as the expectations on coaches become more complex, the paradox becomes a critical lens to understand and assist contemporary coaches. This article defines the paradox based on a synthesis of existing literature and proposes an organizing framework for categorizing tensions relevant to coaching. This review draws distinctions between the paradox and other similar constructs, such as dilemmas and dialectics. In doing so, it is suggested that tensions are inherent and persistent to the coaching process and that purposeful management of paradoxical forces over time can lead to a tradition of success. Together, the review of literature and frameworks provide the foundations of a paradoxical perspective of coaching, offer clarity, provoke discussion, and fuel future research.

Systematic Snooker Skills Test to Analyze Player Performance

The process of rigorous training and coaching is one that is essential to any sports player aiming to develop their abilities further. From the novice player through to professional athletes, it is vital to maintain and assess their level of performance in order to progress to a higher standard. However, traditional practice routines can often be non-strategic and devised with an “ad-hoc” approach. In order for a training regime to be beneficial to a player, methods to examine a player's performance are desirable and can offer quantifiable feedback that will help the player to understand their current weaknesses and provide a benchmark to improve upon. This article focuses on the introduction of a systematic skills test. We assess the fundamental physics of snooker and from this we identify a set of key skills that characterises the basis of all snooker shots. We present 5 snooker tests that can be used to quantify the performance of these key skills. This allows us to analyse snooker players in an objective manner based on their level of ability for each key skill. The article concludes with a user study that assesses the performance of novice, intermediate and professional players when performing our proposed snooker skills test, which demonstrates the ability to make accurate comparison between players of different ability.

A step-wise process of intentional personality change coaching

Objectives:This article discusses why personality change appears both possible and beneficial, and provides a step-wise process of intentional personality change coaching.Design:A qualitative single sample exploratory design was employed.Method:Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a panel of coaches/psychologists (experts), in order to develop coaching interventions to increase or decrease each of the 30 facets within the NEO PI-R. Further consultation with a sub-group of this panel led to the development of a step-wise process of intentional personality change coaching, designed to facilitate client chosen personality change goals.Results:A step-wise process of intentional personality change coaching was developed, and related coach training material. The step-wise process proposed that personality change coaching of individuals without major psychopathology be conducted in a coaching context. Prerequisites included client awareness of their personality, and motivation to change one or more personality facets. The step-wise process incorporated a 10-step coaching sequence to facilitate change in this context, and utilised a menu of unique change interventions for each of the 30 NEO PI-R facets.Conclusion:Personality change coaching appears both feasible and beneficial in a coaching context. The stepwise process discussed in this article informs coaching practice, and provides a foundation for empirical exploration of this potential.

A Case Study of a Parasport Coach and a Life of Learning

The complex process of sport coaching is a dynamic and evolving practice that develops over a long period of time. As such, a useful constructivist perspective on lifelong learning is Jarvis’ (2006, 2009) theory of human learning. According to Jarvis, how people learn is at the core of understanding how we can best support educational development. The purpose of the current study is to explore the lifelong learning of one parasport coach who stood out in his feld, and how his coaching practice evolved and developed throughout his life. A thematic analysis (Braun &amp; Clarke, 2006) was used to extract themes and examples from three two-hour interviews as well as interviews with key collaborators in his coaching network. The findings reveal a coach whose coaching practice is founded on pragmatic problem solving in the face of a lack in resources; an investment in formal and nonformal adapted activity education at the start of his parasport career; and observation, communication, and relationship-building with his athletes and the parasport community. Suggestions are provided for coach developers on how they might invest resources and create learning opportunities for coaches of athletes with a disability.

Motivational interviewing as a framework to guide school-based coaching

In school-based settings, coaching is described as a professional development practice in which a person with specialized knowledge works with a teacher to change current practices to better student outcomes. Coaching has emerged as a strategy to support the successful deployment of evidence-based interventions. Still, little is known about the coaching process itself, and the literature does not yet clearly define the activities and skills that comprise the coaching process. In this article, we explore theoretical support for motivational interviewing (MI) [Miller, W. R., & Rollnick, S. (2012). Motivational interviewing: Helping people change. New York, NY: Guilford Press] as a behavior change theory to guide coaching practice and research. In addition, we propose activities to conceptualize the coaching process, identify skills that are likely to contribute to successful coaching, highlight specific interventions or models that have used an MI approach to increase implementation fidelity within the context of a coaching relationship, and discuss implications for future research and practice.

The effectiveness of strength-based executive coaching in enhancing full range leadership development: A controlled study.

This study attempts to investigate the effectiveness of a strength-based coaching methodology in enhancing elements of the full range leadership model, especially transformational leadership. Transformational leadership is the process whereby leaders engage and influence their followers toward attaining a shared vision through their capacity to inspire, innovate and personalize their attention. A between-subjects nonequivalent control group design was used to explore the impact of strength-based coaching on transformational and transactional leadership behaviors measured in a 360-degree feedback process. Thirty-seven executives and senior managers from a large not-for-profit organization were nonrandomly assigned to either a coaching or waitlist cohort. The coaching cohort received six sessions of leadership coaching involving feedback on leadership and strengths, goal setting, and strengths development. The coaching protocol was manualized to ensure some methodological consistency between the 11 executive coaches providing the intervention. This involved providing a written manual to each coach and coachee that outlined the required coaching process for each session. After six sessions of coaching over 3 months, cohorts then switched roles. The results showed that participants experienced highly statistically significant increases in their transformational leadership behavior after coaching and this difference was perceived at all levels within the organization but not by the participants themselves. Adherence to the strength-based protocol was also a significant predictor of ultimate degree of change in transformational leadership behavior. The results suggest that strength-based coaching may be effective in the development of transformational leaders.