Athletic Coaches Research Articles

Factors Associated With Awareness, Adoption, and Implementation of Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Prevention in Youth Sports.

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries are among the most common injuries in adolescent athletes and result in significant financial and physical morbidity. Evidence-based programs designed to prevent ACL injury are effective. However, their adoption remains low. We sought to evaluate the awareness, evidence-based implementation, and barriers to implementation of ACL injury prevention programs (ACL-IPP) among youth athletic coaches. Higher education level of the coach, higher level of training, number of teams coached, and coaching female teams would be associated with ACL-IPP implementation. Cross-sectional survey. Level 4. We conducted an email survey sent to all 63 school districts within Section VI of the New York State Public High School Athletic Association. We employed descriptive statistics and tests of correlation to identify factors associated with ACL-IPP implementation. A total of 73% of coaches said they were aware of ACL-IPP, and only 12% of coaches implemented ACL-IPP according to best evidence. Coaches of higher competitive levels were more likely to adopt ACL-IPP (P = 0.01), more likely to use them multiple times per week (P = 0.03), and for ≥1 seasons (P = 0.02). Coaches of multiple teams were more likely to adopt ACL-IPP (P = 0.01). There were no differences in evidence-based implementation of ACL-IPP with gender coached or level of education of the coach. Overall awareness, adoption, and evidence-based implementation of ACL-IPP remain low. These results suggest that coaches at higher levels of play and multiple teams tend to use ACL-IPP more often. Gender coached and level of education do not appear to be associated with awareness or implementation. Evidence-based ACL-IPP implementation remains low. Targeting coaches of younger athletes and fewer teams with local outreach programs and ACL-IPP may increase the implementation of ACL-IPP.

Existence ≠ adherence. Exploring barriers to best practice in sports-related concussion return to play (SRC-RTP) in Irish amateur female sport

ObjectivesSports-Related Concussion (SRCs) are of relevant risk and burden for female athletes. The following study aimed to explore potential barriers to return to play (RTP) best practice in coaches of amateur female athletes, and medical professionals who may treat and manage SRCs in amateur female athletes. DesignQualitative, semi-structured, virtual interviews following a critical analysis framework. MethodsTwenty-five coaches, allied healthcare professionals (AHPs), and general practitioners (GPs) were recruited and interviewed using a convenience snowball sample. Data were transcribed verbatim and thematically analysed. ResultsThree themes were identified following reflexive thematic analysis; biopsychosocial norms, stakeholder inaction, and practitioner effectiveness. The findings identify numerous factors which limit the uptake of best practice guidelines as endorsed by Irish national governing bodies (NGBs). Education, training, and implementation of these guidelines are lacking, with sub-standard or non-existent medical support and poor general injury and/or SRC attitudes providing further resistance to these measures. ConclusionExistence of SRC-RTP protocols does not equal adherence to such. Greater efforts are required to translate knowledge provided by the 6th Concussion Consensus statement. NGBs, league and club administrators, and educators need to better support coaches, practitioners and athletes in the implementation of these protocols in amateur female sport.

Examining sports coaches’ mental health literacy: evidence from UK athletics

ABSTRACT There is increasing interest in the role sports coaches are expected to play in supporting the mental health of elite and sub-elite athletes. This paper presents the first single-sport, mixed-methods, study of UK athletics coaches’ mental health literacy (MHL). We extend previous quantitative survey-based UK studies by incorporating the qualitative lived experiences of coaches into the analysis. We explore coaches’ knowledge of mental health and illness, experience of mental health training, and willingness to support athletes with mental illness. An online survey of 184 UK athletics coaches revealed that MHL was highest among women, younger coaches, and coaches with less experience. No statistical differences were found between MHL score and disability, sexuality or region in which coaches worked. Interviews held with a sub-sample of 25 survey respondents revealed a lack of clear consensus about what constitutes mental health and mental illness, and that coaches’ everyday views of these did not always correspond with formal definitions or conceptualisations. Coaches’ views were instead typically characterised by dominant psychological and psychiatric understandings of mental health and illness, while the significance of social relations and inequalities were often overlooked. There was a general willingness among coaches to support athlete mental health as an aspect of their duty of care, but most lacked the relevant training and understanding to do so effectively because such training was not implemented systematically within their organisational practice. Coaches’ call for mandatory athletics-specific mental health training was one strategy thought to better enhance coaches’ skills, knowledge and intentions to provide and seek mental health support. Important though MHL training and other sources of support is, we conclude that this is likely insufficient on its own and that there is a parallel need for multi-level, systems-wide, approaches in sport and wider society to better support the mental health of everyone.

Pedagogical touch: exploring the micro-realities of coach–athlete sensory interactions in high-performance sports

ABSTRACT Background Touch has emerged as a social taboo rather than as an educational tool among sport pedagogues, especially in the #MeToo era. Believing that minimising physical contact will protect themselves from sexual allegations, instructors (coaches and PE teachers) are increasingly opting for hands-off practices, which transforms sport into a no-touch zone. Although extant sport literature has focused on the potential risks and controversial issues of intergenerational touch, academic endeavours exploring its pedagogical value in sensory interaction are limited. Purpose This study emphasises the fundamental necessity of pedagogical touch (PT) in high-performance sports. Drawing on Merleau-Ponty’s (1968) ‘flesh’ as an elemental tissue knitting the inter-world by entangling (subjectively sensing and objectively being sensed) the existences of oneself, others, and the world, we examine the micro-realities of PT occurring in coach–athlete interactions. As one of the few empirical investigations using video analysis, this study is expected to complement the current understanding of coach–athlete tactile communication by linking it with Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenological concepts. Methods Sensory ethnography was employed to comprehend the nuances and dynamics of PT in coach–athlete relationships. Sixteen participants, comprising eight coaches and eight adolescent athletes across four high-performance sports (golf, taekwondo, wrestling, and handball), were selected. Empirical data were gathered through observations using body-mounted camcorders (GoPro7), stimulated recall interviews, and semi-structured interviews. The data were analysed by alternating between inductive fieldwork and deductive framework. Results and discussion Our empirical investigation revealed three key findings. First, PT aims to transfer each sport’s normative body schema of postures, muscles, and senses. Second, the overlapping zone of tactile, visual, and auditory sensations—synaesthesia—enables coaches to explore athletes’ inner sensory conditions appropriately for individualised prescriptions of PT. Third, coaches utilise objects as extended bodies to touch opposite-sex athletes without skin-to-skin contact. Reflecting on the results, we discuss conducive considerations for coaches to maintain the pedagogical benefits of touch: (a) educational persuasion regarding the discomfort caused when athletes’ body schema is de/reconstructed by PT; (b) appropriate questions to understand athletes’ internal sensations; and (c) inclusive application of object-mediated touch to ensure the safety of PT by avoiding direct contact with athletes’ sensitive body parts, irrespective of sex or gender. Conclusion Based on the findings, the authors suggest that sporting agencies broaden their attention towards supporting coaches to be professionally prepared for potential touch-related problems. This can be achieved by offering coaches opportunities to cultivate their ethical and pedagogical sensibilities about intergenerational touch through education on actual un/professional PT cases, instead of continuing with the current no-touch discourses (less touch, less problem). Thereby, coaches, who face dilemmas regarding tactile communication without alternative pedagogies, can reflect on their own practice compared to others’ PT cases while building didactic contracts with their athletes and handling problematic circumstances.

Sports Coaches’ Athlete Talent Mindset and Views Regarding Talent Identification in Norway

We investigated coaches’ mindsets of athletic talent as conceptualised by Dweck (athlete talent mindset, A-TM) along with the athlete age at which they believe talent can be identified. We also looked at the age of talent identification in coaches of different A-TM. Using data collected as part of a survey conducted in Norway, the 3,830 participating coaches were men and women between 16 and 83 years of age. Overall, the coaches held a predominantly growth A-TM. However, older coaches, those not born in Norway, and coaches in athletics, gymnastics, and football were found to have a more fixed A-TM. Regarding their views about talent identification age, one fifth of the coaches believe that talent can be seen before 12 years of age, with football, gymnastics, and swimming coaches and those not born in Norway being more prone to detect talent at younger ages. Analyses also showed that the more fixed A-TM coaches believed that they could identify talented athletes at younger ages; however, not all of them reported such talent identification age views. These findings indicate that coaches’ A-TM and views regarding talent identification operate as two separate beliefs, which may be useful for understanding coaches’ early talent identification and development approaches.

The Importance of Positive Relationships for Coaches’ Effectiveness and Well-Being

The present study investigated the role of quality coach–athlete relationships and coaching efficacy on coaches’ well-being and performance. We examined whether coaches’ direct and meta-perspectives of the coach–athlete relationship quality predicted dimensions of coaches’ efficacy, hedemonic and eudaimonic well-being, and coach-related performance. A total of 233 male and female Swedish coaches from various team and individual sports completed the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire, the Coaching Efficacy Scale, Positive and Negative Affect Scale, Subjective Vitality Scale, and a one-single item developed to measure perceived coach performance. Structural equation modelling analyses revealed that quality coach–athlete relationships as defined by closeness, commitment, and complementarity associated with all four dimensions of coach efficacy. While coach–athlete relationship quality was linked with coaches’ positive affect, vitality, and satisfaction with coaching performance, only the motivational dimension of coach efficacy was associated with indicators of coach well-being and coach-related performance. Further analyses showed that the motivational dimension of coach efficacy explained the link between coach–athlete relationship quality, well-being, and coach-related performance. Overall, the findings extended the coach efficacy model by investigating the coach–athlete relationship as a predictor and coach well-being as an outcome. Our findings emphasize the importance of relationships for coaches’ efficacy and well-being.

Systematic Review of the Coach–Athlete Relationship From the Coaches’ Perspective

The purpose of this study was to systematically review the variables associated with the coach–athlete relationship (CAR) from the coaches’ perspective. Three databases were searched; 57 studies published between January 2000 and May 2021 met the inclusion criteria. Correlates (n = 35) were grouped into three categories: coach variables, athlete variables, and coaching behaviors. Variables positively associated with the coaches’ perspective of the CAR included coaching satisfaction, the teaching of life skills, and engaging in need-supportive behaviors. Negative correlates included coaching burnout, athletes’ avoidant attachment style, and coaches’ controlling behaviors. Aside from coach satisfaction, many of the relationships mentioned came from only one or two studies; therefore, replication studies are needed examining CAR from the coaches’ perspective. In conclusion, the better coaches report CAR to be, the more they also report fostering a caring and autonomy-supportive environment, teaching life skills, and being satisfied with their coaching experience.

The effect of coach–athlete fit on the coach–athlete relationship in team sport: Role of trust in coach

The purpose of this study was to verify the structural relationship among trust in coach, coach–athlete fit, and coach–athlete relationship. It verified the mediating effect trust in coach on relationships, in relation to coach–athlete fit and coach–athlete relationship. A total of 190 soccer players (N = 190, male; 135, female; 55) registered with the Korea Football Association responded to the survey; and their career in soccer about 6.8 years. Data analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics, confirmatory factor analysis, correlation analysis, structural equation modeling. As expected, coach–athlete fit and trust in coach were significantly related to coach–athlete relationship; in addition, the structural relationship among the three variables was significant. Finally, mediating effect of trust in coach between coach–athlete fit and coach–athlete relationship was showed significantly.

"You need to allow yourself to grieve that loss and that identity." College Athletes' Transition to Life After College Sport

Only a small percentage of collegiate athletes compete at the professional level of sport after they graduate, leaving most athletes to transition out of a life involved in sport. Research reviewing life after competitive sport for college athletes and the consequences associated with such a transition is plentiful, however, additional research also argues that life transition research is necessary to maximize the understanding of such a phenomenon. A case study approach used Schlossberg’s Theory of Transition (2011) to research recently retired collegiate college athletes and their time transitioning away from competitive college sports. Several themes emerged from the qualitative results including, the stress of transition, athletics unites hardworking individuals, freedom after college, physical change, college athlete identity, and a sense of loss in transition. The current study reviewed results to offer new insights into retired college athlete transition as well as how athletic departments and coaches can better prepare their athletes for this transition. Based on the research, those that prepare for such a transition should consider a grieving process as a part of the transition.

Associations between Force-Time Related Single-Leg Counter Movement Jump Variables, Agility, and Linear Sprint in Competitive Youth Male Basketball Players

Previous research has reported a strong relationship between vertical jumping, sprinting, and agility, as a reflection of lower-limb power. Unilateral analysis of this relationship has not yet been explored. This study primarily investigated the associations between single-leg countermovement jump (CMJ), sprint, and agility performances in youth basketball players. Thirty-five male basketball players from the youth category (age 15.06 ± 2.62 years, n = 32 right-limb dominant; n = 3 left-limb dominant) performed single-leg CMJ, 20 m sprint, and T-drill agility tests over two sessions. Force-time-related performance variables were measured using a single-leg CMJ test on a Kistler force plate. Significant moderate to large negative correlations were observed between single-leg CMJ variables, 20 m sprint, and T-drill agility, except for mean force for both dominant and non-dominant leg measures (r = -0.384 to -0.705). Mean power and mean force were correlated with the physical characteristics of the athletes for both legs (r = -0.389 to -0.843). Flight time and jump height were identified as the best predictor variables for both sprint and agility time in the stepwise model (R2 = 0.608 to 0.660). No statistical inter-limb differences were found during the single-leg CMJ test (p > 0.05). The study findings suggest that youth basketball players with greater single-leg jump output most likely have better sprint and agility performances. Thus, trainers and athletic performance coaches may include unilateral limb exercises in their training programs to enhance lower-limb explosive performance and reduce limb asymmetries.

Toward a grounded theology: reflections on a grounded theory study of faith and athletic coaching

ABSTRACT This research note is a reflection on my recent dissertation study, in which I employed ‘grounded theology’ as a qualitative method that merges grounded theory and theological reflection. The purpose of this method is to produce new insights and frameworks that help us think theologically about a particular social phenomenon or process. Grounded theology has been explored as a possible qualitative research method (Stevens, B. A. 2017. “Grounded Theology? A Call for a Community of Practice.” Practical Theology 10 (2): 201–206; Barnsley, J. 2016. “Grounded Theology: Adopting and Adapting Qualitative Research Methods for Feminist Theological Enquiry.” Feminist Theology 24 (2): 109–124) with calls for future developments that contribute to clearer definitions, distinctive research techniques, and a better understanding of the epistemological assumptions that undergird the research project. After introducing the relationship between qualitative and theological inquiry, I will trace some of the ontological and epistemological questions that must be considered when conducting a grounded theology, followed by some methodological implications by way of examples of my own research techniques. I conclude with some avenues for further developments on grounded theology.

The moderating role of coping strategies in athletic coaches’ psychological well-being in response to negative emotions

Negative emotions are known risk factors for physical health, psychological distress (e.g. hopelessness and feeling worthless), and mood disorders (e.g. depression and anxiety). Thus, it is important for athletic coaches, one of the most stressful occupations, to understand how to cope with their negative emotions. This study aimed to examine the moderating roles of four different coping strategies (emotion-focused, problem-focused, proactive, and emotive suppression) on the relationship between negative emotions and psychological well-being. Online survey data were collected from 162 athletic head coaches working in NCAA Division I through questionnaires that assessed the proposed variables. The results reported that proactive coping strategy and emotive suppression strategy negatively and significantly moderated the negative emotional–psychological well-being relationship. The findings of this study contribute to understanding the coping strategies that should be avoided in response to negative emotions among coaches. The results also highlight the need to consider adopting existing proactive coping intervention programs for coaches.

The coach's role during an athlete's rehabilitation following sports injury: A scoping review

Coaches play a pivotal role during an athletes’ rehabilitation, assisting them to deal with the psychological challenges linked with injury recovery and return to sport. However, coaches’ views of their roles during rehabilitation, and the extent to which their influences may facilitate psychological coping is unclear. Although athletes value input from their coaches during their injury rehabilitation, their satisfaction with the support provided is varied. To explore the current literature on the role of coaches during an athlete's rehabilitation from injury, a scoping review, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews guidelines, was conducted on EBSCOhost, PubMed and Scopus databases. A total of 27 articles met the inclusion criteria after 2716 studies were excluded based on the eligibility criteria during phases of title, abstract and full-text screening. Factors to consider when exploring coaches’ roles during injury rehabilitation include athlete's and coaches’ age and gender, the type of sport and level of competition, the athletes’ role in the team, and the injury severity and type. The major role that coaches play during rehabilitation is providing social support to the injured athlete. The amount and availability of social support, as well as different forms of social support and their perceived prominence to athletes’ well-being, are key concepts worth considering when analyzing the role of coaches during injury rehabilitation. Social support provided by coaches to athletes undergoing rehabilitation aids in maintaining the coach–athlete relationship, thereby preventing any unrest between the two upon return to sport.

Sensorimotor feedback loops are selectively sensitive to reward.

Although it is well established that motivational factors such as earning more money for performing well improve motor performance, how the motor system implements this improvement remains unclear. For instance, feedback-based control, which uses sensory feedback from the body to correct for errors in movement, improves with greater reward. But feedback control encompasses many feedback loops with diverse characteristics such as the brain regions involved and their response time. Which specific loops drive these performance improvements with reward is unknown, even though their diversity makes it unlikely that they are contributing uniformly. We systematically tested the effect of reward on the latency (how long for a corrective response to arise?) and gain (how large is the corrective response?) of seven distinct sensorimotor feedback loops in humans. Only the fastest feedback loops were insensitive to reward, and the earliest reward-driven changes were consistently an increase in feedback gains, not a reduction in latency. Rather, a reduction of response latencies only tended to occur in slower feedback loops. These observations were similar across sensory modalities (vision and proprioception). Our results may have implications regarding feedback control performance in athletic coaching. For instance, coaching methodologies that rely on reinforcement or 'reward shaping' may need to specifically target aspects of movement that rely on reward-sensitive feedback responses.

The role of the social environment in inclusive sports participation-Identifying similarities and challenges in athletes with and without Intellectual Disabilities through coaches' eyes: A qualitative inquiry.

Despite the efforts of mainstreaming in sports, inclusive participation of people with Intellectual Disabilities (ID) in sports remains challenging. In sports settings, the social environment may influence the motivation of athletes and promote (or restrict) inclusive sports participation of athletes with ID. Thus, this study aims to explore the motivations of athletes and coaches and to investigate the role of the social environment in sports participation of athletes with and without ID. Coaches who coach athletes with ID (n = 11), athletes without ID (n = 13) and both groups (n = 2) were involved in semi-structured interviews. From the inductive thematic analysis three themes were identified for the sports motivations of athletes with ID (Sport-related Progression, Social Interaction, Positive Emotions), two for their coaches' motivations (Help others, Personal and Professional Development) and four for coaching practices toward athletes with ID (Psychological and Life skills development, Building Meaningful Relationships, Behaviour adaptations and Participation-focused). Moreover, 'Teammates and Opponents' and 'Family' were classified as social agents that influence the sport participation of athletes with ID. Coaches of athletes without ID reported additional themes about their athletes' motivations (Health-related Reasons), their coaching motivations (Career aspirations) and their coaching practices towards athletes without ID (Performance-focused). The motivations of athletes and the practices of coaches could promote sports participation of athletes with ID, but more work is needed to address athletes' sports motivations and overcome the able-ist attitudes and the social oppression that may make their inclusion in sports more challenging. These sports participation barriers and facilitators could provide direction to stakeholders for developing inclusive sports pathways to people with ID.

A Case Study Analysis of the Coach–Athlete Dyad in Different Age Grade Nonelite Rugby Union Teams

The coach–athlete dyad is complex where both parties can often have contrasting perceptions of each other. The purpose of this research was to examine coaching behaviors and perceptions of the coach–athlete relationship across different age grades of rugby football union. Coaches (n = 5) and athletes (n = 78) from three separate rugby union teams (Child, Adolescent, and Adult) had their training sessions (n = 3) analyzed using the Coach Analysis and Intervention System. Athlete perceptions of their coaches’ behaviors were measured via the Coaching Behavior Scale for Sport, while coach perceptions of their relationship with their athletes were measured using the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire. Prescriptive coaching styles were observed in all coaches as Coach Analysis and Intervention System results showed high levels of explicit behaviors: “instruction,” “direct management,” and “feedback.” All coaches utilized similar time proportions within sessions for Coach Analysis and Intervention System “Practice,” “Playing,” and “Management” states, respectively. Questionnaire results revealed positive perceptions between coaches and athletes for all teams. Despite positive bidirectional relationships, the prescriptive coaching style displayed by all coaches may not align to best coaching practice. Development of a coach’s behaviors, training content, and perceptions through coach education has the potential to enhance their athletes’ sporting experience, athletic development, and sport-specific competencies.

Wheelchair Basketball Athletes' Perceptions of the Coach-Athlete Relationship.

The majority of research on the coach-athlete relationship has been explored from the perspective of able-bodied athletes. The purpose of this study was to explore wheelchair basketball athletes' perceptions of the coach-athlete relationship. Timelining and semistructured interviews were conducted with six wheelchair basketball athletes, and data were analyzed using a reflexive thematic analysis. Athletes highlighted the important role that parasport coaches played in fostering an enjoyable wheelchair basketball environment and valued coaches who displayed expertise regarding their athletes' equipment and had personal parasport athletic experiences. Additionally, athletes identified personal preferences, including coaches who addressed sex differences and maintained professional relationships at the national level as contributing factors to the coach-athlete relationship. The current results benefit both parasport coaches and athletes by providing a portrayal of coaching behaviors, characteristics, and expertise that not only influence the parasport coach-athlete dyad but also affect the well-being and athletic development of parasport athletes.

Coaches’ Experience of the “Gaelic4Teens” Program in Ireland

This paper examines Irish volunteer coaches’ experiences of the content and delivery of the “Gaelic4Teens” coach education initiative, and further seeks to evaluate if participants coaching behavior changed as a result. The Gaelic4Teens program aims to help coaches better understand the female teenage participant through enhancing the coach–athlete relationship, which in turn, seeks to help retain young females in the sport. Qualitative data were gathered over a 16-week period from August to November 2020 and comprised of pre and post online focus groups with eight (three females and five males) volunteer coaches; one from each of the eight rural community sport settings (n = 8) in Ireland. Findings revealed that the coach education program had a meaningful impact on coaches’ abilities to competently work with female adolescents. Specifically, the Gaelic4Teens program is effective as a blended learning coach education program that encouraged a coaching environment that empowered the female athletes. Further analysis, with additional stakeholder input, is warranted to ascertain its long-term effectiveness.

Developing Coaches’ Knowledge of the Athlete–Coach Relationship Through Formal Coach Education: The Perceptions of Football Association Coach Developers

Developing high-quality athlete–coach (A–C) relationships improves both athlete performance and well-being. However, content relating to the A–C relationship has been underrepresented within coach education. The study evaluates how coaches completing the English Football Association’s Union of European Football Associations A and B licenses develop knowledge of the A–C relationship. It does so by drawing on the perspectives of those who design and deliver the courses. Semistructured interviews were completed with nine experienced Football Association coach developers alongside a document analysis of seven key course documents. Data were analysed through an inductive thematic analysis and five themes were generated: (a) coach developers understand that the A–C relationship is built on trust, care, and hard and soft interpersonal approaches; (b) the triad of knowledge impacts on the A–C relationship, not just interpersonal knowledge; (c) the A–C relationship is not meaningfully addressed in the formalised course content; (d) in situ visits provide an effective medium to develop knowledge of the A–C relationship; and (e) the assessment framework does not align with the formalised course content. Findings demonstrate, despite a diversification in content, the A–C relationship is introduced in a superficial manner. Future research should clarify the knowledge coaches require to develop high-quality A–C relationships within a high-performance footballing context.

The The Efficacy of Teacher-Coach Among Individual and Team Sport in Rural Sibu, Sarawak

The objective of this study is to examine the efficacy of youth sport teacher-coach among individual and team sport in rural zone in Sibu, Sarawak. A total N=300 school sport coach teacher (SSCT) from Sibu rural zone were selected through purposive sampling to participate in this study. They were categorized into individual (N = 75) and team (N = 225) sports coaches Coaching Efficacy Scale II-Youth Sport Team (CES II-YST) questionnaire was used to measure the coaches’ coaching efficacy. Overall, Sibu rural zone coaches who coached individual sports showed that their level of coaching efficacy was higher (M = 3.35, SD = 0.38) for all the subscales, namely character building (M = 4.01, SD = 0.59), motivation (M = 4.04, SD = 0.63), technique (M = 3.35, SD = 0.38), and game strategy (M = 3.93, SD = 0.64) compared with coaches who coached team sports. In summary, individual athletic coaches demonstrate higher levels of coaching effectiveness, and under their guidance, athletes learn sport fundamentals, improve leadership skills, and gain confidence in their physical and mental abilities