Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire Research Articles

The role of coach-athlete relationship on motivation and sports engagement

Background and Study Aim. The relationship between coach and athlete may significantly influence an athlete's experience in sports. Elements such as closeness, commitment, and complementarity are key aspects of this relationship. The current study aimed to examine the association between motivation and athletes' engagement in sports, as mediated by the coach-athlete relationship. Material and Methods. A sample of 408 student-athletes from various universities in Iligan City participated in the study. They completed a set of questionnaires assessing motivation, the coach-athlete relationship, and athlete engagement. The participants were between 18 and 25 years old. The measures used in the study included the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CARTQ), the Sports Motivation Scale (SMS), and the Athletic Engagement Questionnaire (AEQ). Ethical approval was obtained from all participants. Results. The results showed that coach-athlete relationships were characterized by closeness, commitment, and complementarity. These relationships significantly mediated the link between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and athlete engagement in sports. Strong connections between coaches and athletes enhance the positive effect of motivation on engagement. This occurs by fulfilling athletes' psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Conversely, amotivation was negatively associated with engagement through the dimensions of the coach-athlete relationship. Athletes with high levels of amotivation are more likely to disengage. This highlights the need for coaches to foster a supportive environment that reduces negative motivational states. Conclusions. The evidence supports the utilization of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to better understand the importance of relationship factors in enhancing motivation. This approach leads to long-term engagement in sports. These results offer a more comprehensive view of the delicate dynamics of the coach-athlete relationship and its consequences for motivation and athletic engagement in sports.

Coach perspectives on coach-athlete relationships and characteristics of Generation Z academy level rugby union players from South Africa.

The coach-athlete relationship is not merely a by-product of the coaching process but serves as its foundation. Coaches today must align their approaches with the characteristics (character, strengths, and growth areas) of a new generation of athletes, commonly referred to as Generation Z (Gen Z). Born between 1995 and 2012, Gen Z's grew up in a digital age, which shaped their character and behaviour. The purpose of the study was to explore coach-athlete relationships, the characteristics of Gen Z athletes that influence this relationship, and the process of building healthy coach-athlete relationships, from the perspectives of coaches. The study used a qualitative methodology to elicit the perspectives of 11 male rugby union coaches (M ± SD age: 42.09 ± 7.56 years; with 12.83 ± 3.48 years of coaching experience), through semi-structured individual online interviews. We developed the interview script from Jowett's Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q). The interviews were analysed using Merriam and Tisdell's six-step process. The analysis yielded six super themes (and 17 themes). 1. Coach perspectives on coaching Gen Z players (developmental facilitators and debilitators, Covid-19's effect on development). 2. Closeness between coaches and athletes [loving and caring, getting closer, trusting, (not) respecting some players]. 3. Commitment (personally and towards the team, sacrifices). 4. Complementarity (goal setting, collectively working towards common goals). 5. Co-orientation (communicating, reciprocal relationship views). 6. Developing the coach-athlete relationship (approaches thereto, practical steps). Various facets of the coach-athlete relationship are interlinked and shaped by the characteristics and behaviours of this generation of athletes. Practical recommendations are offered on how to cultivate the coach-athlete relationship on emotional, cognitive, and behavioural levels.

Psychometric Properties of the Malay Version of the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire for Coaches and Athletes.

In the world of sports, motivation is an essential concept that can affect the sporting performance of athletes and help them accomplish their goals. The coach is regarded as an important individual with the ability to significantly influence the athlete's motivation. To assess the impact of the coach-athlete relationship on motivation, the objective of this study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Malay version of the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q) for coaches and athletes. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among the coaches and athletes in Malaysia. Data were collected using a convenience sampling approach over a 6-month period. The study was carried out in two phases using two independent samples of coaches and athletes to assess the construct validity and internal consistency of the Malay version of the CART-Q. The CART-Q consisted of 11 items measuring three constructs: i) closeness (four items), ii) commitment (three items) and iii) complementarity (four items). In phase 1, the subjects consisted of 211 coaches (21 years old-65 years old) from both sexes and from individual and team sports, ranging from levels 1 to 5. In phase 2, the subjects consisted of 362 athletes (12 years old-39 years old), also from both sexes and from individual and team sports. The statistical analyses performed included confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to validate the translated version scale, composite reliability (CR), average variance extracted (AVE) and internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha). In phase 1, the sample of coaches, with 190 males (90.0%) and 21 females (10.0%), had a mean age of 38.6 (SD = 8.74) years old. The major sport type was archery (19.0%). The CFA revealed adequate fit indices with all 11 items retained (root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.059, comparative fit index [CFI] = 0.964, Tucker and Lewis Index [TLI] = 0.950, standardised root mean square residual [SRMR] = 0.037). The CR values were closeness = 0.874, commitment = 0.566 and complementarity = 0.757. The AVE values were closeness = 0.357, commitment = 0.194 and complementarity = 0.275. The Cronbach's alpha values were closeness = 0.867, commitment = 0.553 and complementarity = 0.794. In phase 2, the sample of athletes, with 175 males (48.1%) and 189 females (51.9%), had a mean age of 20.2 (SD = 3.35) years old. The major sport type was archery (11.5%). The CFA revealed satisfactory fit indices with all 11 items retained (RMSEA = 0.092, CFI = 0.948, TLI = 0.924, SRMR =.038). The CR values were closeness = 0.893, commitment = 0.786 and complementarity = 0.949. The AVE values were closeness = 0.401, commitment = 0.253 and complementarity = 0.418. The Cronbach's alpha values were closeness = 0.900, commitment = 0.772 and complementarity = 0.900. Overall, the study findings supported the conclusion that the Malay version of the CART-Q has adequate psychometric properties to assess the perceptions of coaches and athletes regarding their relationship.

An evaluation of the impact of the Irish Rugby Football Union Coach Education Framework on the coach–athlete dyad across the age and stage spectrum in rugby union

The purpose of this research was to evaluate the implementation of the novel Irish Rugby Football Union Coach Education Framework (CEF) on coach–athlete interactions and perceptions. Participants were coaches (n = 4) and athletes (n = 54) from two rugby union teams. Coaches were observed pre-intervention and post-intervention of an education workshop based on the CEF and had nine training sessions video-recorded and analysed using the Coach Analysis and Intervention System (CAIS). Their perceptions of their relationship with their athletes were measured using the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q). Athlete perceptions of their coaches’ behaviours were measured using the Coaching Behaviour Scale for Sport (CBS-S). CAIS results revealed coaches increased the use of ‘Management’ and ‘Feedback’ behaviours ( p < 0.05) post-CEF, without altering prominent high-volume behaviours (e.g. ‘Instruction’). Coaches utilised similar time proportions for CAIS ‘Practice’, ‘Playing’ and ‘Management’ states, respectively, with no significant change post-CEF. CART-Q and CBS-S results revealed predominantly positive perceptions between coaches and athletes for both pre-CEF and post-CEF. Coach education is a non-linear learning process requiring consistent application over long periods of time, however, the alteration in coach behaviours post-CEF, coupled with the largely positive perceptions of both agents of the coach–athlete dyad, is an encouraging step forward for the further implementation of the CEF.

Coach–athlete relationship as a predictor of contextual motivation in weightlifters

Coach behaviour is an important predictor of athlete motivation (Jowett, 2017). The coach–athlete relationship can be defined as a dynamic interaction wherein the feelings, thoughts and behaviours of both athlete and coaches are mutually and causally interconnected (Jowett and Shanmugam, 2016, In Schinke, McGannon & Smith (Eds.), Routledge International Handbook of Sport Psychology, Relational Coaching in Sport: Its psychological underpinnings and practical effectiveness (pp. 471–484). Routledge). This present study explored the coach–athlete relationship through the lens of Self-Determination Theory. This multidimensional theory underscores various facets of motivation suggesting that coaches' behaviours influence athletes' motivation by directly influencing their three basic psychological needs (Deci & Ryan, 2008, Can Psych, 49, 182–185). The study builds on previous research highlighting the pivotal role of coaches in shaping positive sporting environments and the significance of closeness, commitment and compatibility in the coach–athlete relationship (Jowett & Nezlek, 2012, J Soc Pers Rel, 29, 287–301). The purpose of the present study was to further understanding of the association between the coach–athlete relationship and contextual motivation among weightlifters. Previous studies have expounded a motivational model of the coach–athlete relationship that outlined a sequence wherein coaches’ actions bear influence on athletes’ intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation by shaping their perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Mageau & Vallerand, 2003, J Sports Sci, 21, 883–904). It was hypothesised that a coach–athlete relationship scores would be a negative predictor of amotivation and external regulation (H1). It would, however, be a positive predictor of more intrinsic forms of motivation (H2). Specifically, those who perceive their coaches as supportive, understanding and competent will report higher levels of intrinsic motivation within the training environment. Following institutional ethical clearance (33249-A-Nov/2023-47988-1), a sample of male and female weightlifters (N = 20; females = 11) were asked to complete an 11-item version of Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q; Jowett & Ntoumanis, 2003) and the 18-item Sports Motivation Scale (SMS-2; Pelletier et al., 2013). There was no time gap in the administration of the two questionnaires. A series of standard linear regression analyses was computed using CART-Q subscales as predictor variables and each SMS-2 subscale as the dependent variable. H1 was not supported, as the CART-Q subscales were not a significant negative predictor of amotivation and external forms of motivation. H2 was supported given that the CART-Q subscales were positive predictors of intrinsic motivation subscales.

Initial Validation of the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire in a Sample of Portuguese Athletes.

Our primary objectives in this study were to translate and provide psychometric support for the Coach Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q) Portuguese version, assess its invariance across sex, and explore its nomological validity in relation to enjoyment. Our sample participants were 470 athletes (226 females, 244 males) aged between 16 to 39 years from various individual and team sports. We found that the translated Portuguese version of the CART-Q exhibited satisfactory test-retest reliability and can serve as a reliable tool for evaluating the core constructs of the coach-athlete relationship - closeness, commitment, and complementarity. Moreover, this instrument showed evidence of nomological validity through significant positive correlations between its underlying factors and athletes' enjoyment with their sport. The proposed model for explaining item variance was also found to be invariant between male and female respondents. We recommend further use of this instrument in research and practical applications.

The influence of athletes' gratitude on burnout: the sequential mediating roles of the coach-athlete relationship and hope.

Athlete burnout is a widespread psychological syndrome in competitive sports, negatively impacts athletes' competitive state and hampers the healthy development of sports organizations. With the rise of positive psychology, exploring the mechanisms of athlete psychological fatigue through the lens of psychological capital has become a focal point of recent research. This study introduces gratitude, a key element of psychological capital in positive psychology, to examine its effect on athlete burnout and its mechanism of action, with a particular focus on the sequential mediating roles of the coach-athlete relationship (CAR) and hope. A cross-sectional study design was utilized, involving 483 active Chinese athletes from national training teams and professional sports teams. The sample comprised both male (n=251) and female (n=232) athletes, with an average age of 19.24 ± 3.99 years. Participants were asked to complete self-administered questionnaires, including the Gratitude Questionnaire, CAR Questionnaire, Hope Questionnaire, and Athlete Burnout Questionnaire. Structural equation modeling in AMOS 24.0 and descriptive statistics and correlation analyses in SPSS 20.0 were employed for data analysis. The study revealed significant associations between athlete gratitude, CAR, hope, and athlete burnout. Notably, gratitude was found to both directly and indirectly (via CAR and hope) influence burnout levels among athletes, suggesting a sequential mediation effect. The findings highlight the importance of positive psychological constructs in buffering against athlete burnout. Specifically, gratitude, alongside a supportive CAR and elevated levels of hope, may play crucial roles in mitigating burnout symptoms. These insights offer promising directions for the development of targeted intervention strategies aimed at fostering athlete well-being and performance, advocating for the integration of positive psychology principles in the management and prevention of athlete burnout.

Coach-athlete relationships and life skills development among Brazilian handball players: A prospective study

This study was to examine the prospective associations between coach-athlete relationship (CAR) and life skills development in youth handball players. This study employed a longitudinal research design. A total of 78 male handball players completed the Life Skills Scale for Sport and the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire over three waves of data collection: start of the season; midseason and end of the season. Data were analyzed using multivariate analysis of variance Pearson’s Correlation and Linear Multiple Regression (p<.05). The findings indicated the three dimensions of CAR seem to have higher effect on life skills subscales as the season progressed (i.e., higher effect on life skills at T3 compared to T2 and T1). Commitment and Complementarity were positively associated with several life skills subscales at all three timepoints. Results suggest that the quality of the CAR is an important determinant for the development of life skills in youth handball players across the sports season.

Tripartite prehabilitation of patients with acute myeloid leukaemia and high-risk myelodysplastic syndromes during intensive chemotherapy before allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (COHABILIT): protocol for an innovating prospective multicentre study

ObjectivesAcute myeloid leukaemia (AML) and high-risk myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) are often treated with intensive chemotherapy followed by allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT). The pretransplant treatment results in a general...

Coach-athlete relationship and burnout symptoms among young elite athletes and the role of mental toughness as a moderator

Abstract: Introduction: Social and contextual factors play an important role for elite athletes’ mental health. In the present study, we examined how young elite athletes’ coach-athlete relationship appraisals are associated with and longitudinally predict general and athlete-specific burnout symptoms and whether mental toughness moderates the association between the coach-athlete relationship and burnout symptoms. Methods: In this prospective study, data were collected twice within a 6 to 10-month interval. The sample consisted of 295 athletes attending Swiss Olympic Partner Schools (186 boys, 109 girls), with a mean age of 16.73±1.38 years. The following instruments were applied: Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q), Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ), Shirom-Melamed Burnout Measure (SMBM), and Mental Toughness Questionnaire (MTQ). Cross-lagged panel analyses were performed to examine reciprocal relationships across time. Interaction effects were tested via hierarchical regression analyses. Results: Cross-sectionally, athletes who perceived their coach-athlete relationship as negative reported more general and athlete-specific burnout symptoms. Burnout symptoms were relatively stable across time, which made it difficult to explain further variance via coach-athlete relationship appraisals in the prospective analyses. While higher mental toughness scores were associated with fewer burnout symptoms in the cross-sectional analyses, higher mental toughness did not moderate the association between the coach-athlete relationship and burnout symptoms. Conclusion: The coach-athlete relationship plays an important role in athletes’ mental health. Therefore, coaches need the ability to develop effective relationships with their athletes, including thoughtful and respectful communication about issues specific to sport and life generally.

Exploring the Multidimensional Model of Leadership Through the Lens of Coaches: An Examination of the Relationship Between Personality, Leader Behaviors, and the Coach–Athlete Relationship

The Multidimensional Model of Leadership hypothesizes that leader personality characteristics impact leader behaviors, which in turn influence collective and individual outcomes. While the Multidimensional Model of Leadership has received substantial research attention over the past four decades, the full hypothesis including antecedents, throughputs, and outputs has rarely been tested in one study. Hence, the purpose of the present study was to test the relationship between adaptive and maladaptive personality characteristics (i.e., perfectionism and passion), leader behaviors, and the coach–athlete relationship in college coaches. National Collegiate Athletic Association coaches (N = 380) completed the Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale-2, the Passion Scale, the Leadership Scale for Sports, and the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire. Structural equation modeling revealed that perfectionism and passion accounted for 65% of the variance for leader behaviors. Specifically, adaptive dimensions of perfectionism and passion positively predicted leader behaviors, whereas maladaptive dimensions of perfectionism negatively predicted leader behaviors. Furthermore, leader behaviors explained over half the variance of the coach–athlete relationship. The results provide support for the Multidimensional Model of Leadership from the perspective of sport coaches. Applied implications for coaches and sport psychology practitioners are discussed.

Reliability and validity of the Arabic version of coach-athlete relationship questionnaire: ACART-Q

Reliability and validity of the Arabic version of coach-athlete relationship questionnaire: ACART-Q

Examining the psychometric properties of the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q) with basketball players in China and Spain.

The study examines the complex interactions between coaches and athletes in federative basketball in two different cultural contexts: China and Spain. The paper examines the interpersonal psychological dimensions from a direct viewpoint and a meta-perspective, drawing on the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q) and guided by the 3Cs model (Closeness, Commitment, and Complementarity). The CART-Q was translated and modified for use in both nations' federative basketball organizational systems to guarantee cross-cultural applicability. Careful translation techniques were used to achieve semantic homogeneity between the Spanish and Chinese versions of the questionnaire, including talks with knowledgeable linguists. The translated versions improved response comparability and kept the same item numbers as the original 2012 instrument. Out of the 771 distributed questionnaires, 763 legitimate answers were gathered via online surveys conducted using secure platforms (Google Forms for Spain and Wenjuanxing for China). The research included a three-step mediation study using structural equation modeling, which allowed for a thorough investigation of the concurrent validity of the modified CART-Qs. The findings indisputably support the reliability and validity of the CART-Qs translated into Chinese and Spanish. The research shows small but significant cultural disparities in the comprehensive perspective of coach-athlete interactions. These results have extensive ramifications for the sport and highlight how crucial it is to consider cultural differences when coaching and developing athletes.

Psychometric properties of the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q) in a sample of Brazilian youth and adult athletes

This study examined the psychometric properties of the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q) in a sample of 1344 Brazilian youth and adult athletes. Participants completed the CART-Q and the Basic Needs Satisfaction in Sport Scale (BNSSS). Data analysis was conducted through Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), Cronbach's alpha, composite reliability, multigroup analysis, and Pearson's correlation ( p < .05). CFA confirmed a multidimensional structure containing the three dimensions of Closeness, Commitment, and Complementarity: χ² (37) = 264.10; χ²/df = 5.13; CFI = .96; TLI = .94; and RMSEA = .068. Internal consistency was satisfactory (>.70). SEM model showed an acceptable fit ( χ² (56) = 593.28; χ²/df = 2.71; CFI = .90; TLI = .90; RMSEA = .057), indicating that the three dimensions of the CART-Q predicted positively all basic needs satisfaction subscales (β range = .11 to .38). CART-Q was revealed to be invariant across gender, sport type, and age group. It was concluded that the CART-Q can satisfactorily be used in research studies involving Brazilian athletes regardless of their age group, gender, and sport.

Association between coach-athlete relationship and athlete engagement in Chinese team sports: The mediating effect of thriving.

Coach-athlete relationship (CAR), thriving and athlete engagement are important psychological variables that affect sports performance. On the basis of self-determination theory, this study constructs a mediation model to examine the influence of CAR on athlete engagement and the mediating effect of thriving between them. This cross-sectional study involves a questionnaire survey with 287 Chinese active athletes (M = 19.63, SD = 2.53) aged 14-26 years (64.5% male, 35.5% female) from eight sports. CAR, thriving and athlete engagement were assessed using the CAR Questionnaire, the Thriving Scale, and the Athlete Engagement Questionnaire, respectively. CAR and its dimensions can significantly and positively predict athlete engagement, complementarity, commitment, and closeness, accounting for 35.1%, 34.6%, and 30.4% of the cumulative variance in dominance analysis, respectively. The direct and indirect paths show that CAR affects athlete engagement through the mediating effect of thriving. The mediating effect model has a good fit and indirect effects account for 56.9% of the total effects. The effect of CAR on athlete engagement reflects a practical application of interpersonal dynamics in competitive sports to a certain extent. The following suggestions can be used to improve athlete engagement. First, setting common goals, emphasizing mutual cooperation, and building trust and support, promote coaches and athletes to have a higher sense of commitment and complementarity to each other, thereby helping improve athlete engagement. Second, meeting the vitality and progress needs of athletes effectively mobilizes CAR resources to promote athlete engagement, which can be manipulated by cultivating closeness, commitment, and complementarity. Third, to ensure the athletes' sports state and mental health, the sports team should focus on the cultivation of athletes' capacities to thrive and internally form a dynamic and positive sports atmosphere in their team. In the future, we can track and compare the influence of the improvement of CAR on thriving and athlete engagement can be tracked and compared from the dual perspectives of coaches and athletes.

Performance Motivation of Taekwondo Athletes: Coach-Athlete Relationship

Without motivation, an athlete will not feel motivated to perform optimally and will be desperate if he fails. The research was conducted to present a motivational relationship between coaches and athletes that describes how coaches can influence athlete motivation. The study was conducted on 62 taekwondo athletes. The instruments to collect data were a motivation scale with 27 items (α = 0.912) and the (CART-Q) Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire with 22 items (α = 0,948). The data analyzed was assisted by the SPSS for Windows version 25. The results obtained from the calculation of the product-moment correlation were the r-value was 0.471, and the r2 value was 0.222, with p lower than 0.001. Thus, there was a relationship between coach-athlete relationship and performance motivation. The psychological processes in which constructive behavior positively influences intrinsic and extrinsic motivations were self-determined by athletes.

RELACIONAMENTO TREINADOR-ATLETA E PERCEPÇÃO DE DESENVOLVIMENTO DE HABILIDADES PARA VIDA NO CONTEXTO DO HANDEBOL PARANAENSE

The practice of sports favors the development of physical, psychological and social skills of the participants. Recent studies have found a positive association between sports practice and the coach-athletes relationship and the development of life skills. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the coach-athlete relationship and the development of life skills in handball athletes, comparing according to sex, practice time, age group and time with the coach. The study included 101 handball athletes participating in the JAPS regional stage 2021, of both sexes, with a mean age of 18.38 ± 5.15 years. The instruments used were: Life Skills Scale in Sport (P-LSSS) and Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q). Data analysis was performed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Mann-Whitney U tests. The results showed that girls have a better perception of the development of social skills (p=0.023) when compared to boys. Regarding the relationship with the coach, athletes with more time of practice and more time with the coach perceive good communication, respect and trust with their coach (p<0.05). It was concluded that sex seems to be an intervening factor in the development of life skills in handball athletes and that practice time and time with the coach seem to influence the perception of the relationship with the coach.

Descriptive Statistical Analysis of the Coach-Player Relationship with CART-Q and SCI

Providing maximum performance in a long-term competitive load is associated with a quality relationship between the player and his coach. A coach plays one of the most important roles in an athlete's sports career and has the potential to positively or negatively impact the mental health of athletes. The aim of the presented paper is to map the bond between the quality of the relationship between the player and the coach and the sports self-confidence of elite junior tennis players. The research sample consisted of 236 elite junior tennis players competing at the national and international levels. The average age was 17.2 years. Data collection was carried out using the questionnaire methods of the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q) and the Sport Confidence Inventory (SCI). The results found significant differences in the perception of the quality of the coaching relationship between Czech and foreign athletes. Gender differences were also found among Czech athletes. A significant relationship was found between the quality of the player-coach relationship and sports self-confidence. The results point to the connections between performance, mental well-being, and the quality of the relationship between the player and the coach and can be the basis for further studies and motivate coaches to think about whether there is a need to modify the ways of training and dealing with their athletes. Doi: 10.28991/HIJ-2023-04-02-01 Full Text: PDF

The Importance of Positive Relationships for Coaches’ Effectiveness and Well-Being

The present study investigated the role of quality coach–athlete relationships and coaching efficacy on coaches’ well-being and performance. We examined whether coaches’ direct and meta-perspectives of the coach–athlete relationship quality predicted dimensions of coaches’ efficacy, hedemonic and eudaimonic well-being, and coach-related performance. A total of 233 male and female Swedish coaches from various team and individual sports completed the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire, the Coaching Efficacy Scale, Positive and Negative Affect Scale, Subjective Vitality Scale, and a one-single item developed to measure perceived coach performance. Structural equation modelling analyses revealed that quality coach–athlete relationships as defined by closeness, commitment, and complementarity associated with all four dimensions of coach efficacy. While coach–athlete relationship quality was linked with coaches’ positive affect, vitality, and satisfaction with coaching performance, only the motivational dimension of coach efficacy was associated with indicators of coach well-being and coach-related performance. Further analyses showed that the motivational dimension of coach efficacy explained the link between coach–athlete relationship quality, well-being, and coach-related performance. Overall, the findings extended the coach efficacy model by investigating the coach–athlete relationship as a predictor and coach well-being as an outcome. Our findings emphasize the importance of relationships for coaches’ efficacy and well-being.

A Case Study Analysis of the Coach–Athlete Dyad in Different Age Grade Nonelite Rugby Union Teams

The coach–athlete dyad is complex where both parties can often have contrasting perceptions of each other. The purpose of this research was to examine coaching behaviors and perceptions of the coach–athlete relationship across different age grades of rugby football union. Coaches (n = 5) and athletes (n = 78) from three separate rugby union teams (Child, Adolescent, and Adult) had their training sessions (n = 3) analyzed using the Coach Analysis and Intervention System. Athlete perceptions of their coaches’ behaviors were measured via the Coaching Behavior Scale for Sport, while coach perceptions of their relationship with their athletes were measured using the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire. Prescriptive coaching styles were observed in all coaches as Coach Analysis and Intervention System results showed high levels of explicit behaviors: “instruction,” “direct management,” and “feedback.” All coaches utilized similar time proportions within sessions for Coach Analysis and Intervention System “Practice,” “Playing,” and “Management” states, respectively. Questionnaire results revealed positive perceptions between coaches and athletes for all teams. Despite positive bidirectional relationships, the prescriptive coaching style displayed by all coaches may not align to best coaching practice. Development of a coach’s behaviors, training content, and perceptions through coach education has the potential to enhance their athletes’ sporting experience, athletic development, and sport-specific competencies.