Coach-athlete Dyad Research Articles

An evaluation of the impact of the Irish Rugby Football Union Coach Education Framework on the coach–athlete dyad across the age and stage spectrum in rugby union

The purpose of this research was to evaluate the implementation of the novel Irish Rugby Football Union Coach Education Framework (CEF) on coach–athlete interactions and perceptions. Participants were coaches (n = 4) and athletes (n = 54) from two rugby union teams. Coaches were observed pre-intervention and post-intervention of an education workshop based on the CEF and had nine training sessions video-recorded and analysed using the Coach Analysis and Intervention System (CAIS). Their perceptions of their relationship with their athletes were measured using the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q). Athlete perceptions of their coaches’ behaviours were measured using the Coaching Behaviour Scale for Sport (CBS-S). CAIS results revealed coaches increased the use of ‘Management’ and ‘Feedback’ behaviours ( p < 0.05) post-CEF, without altering prominent high-volume behaviours (e.g. ‘Instruction’). Coaches utilised similar time proportions for CAIS ‘Practice’, ‘Playing’ and ‘Management’ states, respectively, with no significant change post-CEF. CART-Q and CBS-S results revealed predominantly positive perceptions between coaches and athletes for both pre-CEF and post-CEF. Coach education is a non-linear learning process requiring consistent application over long periods of time, however, the alteration in coach behaviours post-CEF, coupled with the largely positive perceptions of both agents of the coach–athlete dyad, is an encouraging step forward for the further implementation of the CEF.

Managing Challenging Situations in the Coach–Athlete Dyad: Introducing the Grey Zone Model From the Coach Perspective

Challenging situations and interactions are necessary and unavoidable in sport. From deselection to injury, burnout, and mental health issues, coaches and athletes will face challenging situations throughout their sporting career. The aims of this research study were to (a) introduce a conceptual model of challenging situations and subsequently to (b) explore a range of challenging situations that occur in high-performance sport, and (c) discover how such challenging situations are managed and perceived by high-performance coaches. In this study, challenging situations in coach–athlete dyads are defined as organisational, performance, interpersonal, and personal stressors that can push or pull one or both the coach and athlete, and subsequently their relationship into a state of indeterminacy (i.e., the Grey Zone) that may cause stress, strain, conflict, or resolution and understanding depending on how the challenging situations are managed. A total of 11 current high-performance and World Class Performance coaches (M = 41.64 years old, SD = 10.69 years; female = 4, male = 7), took part in a semistructured interview aided by vignettes to explore and discover the process by which coaches deal with challenging situations. Using a pragmatism approach, a content analysis guided by the conceptual Grey Zone Model was utilised to analyse the obtained qualitative data. Results indicated that coaches regularly experience challenging situations and use a variety of techniques to manage them. The Grey Zone Model is proposed as a practical tool to help coaches, athletes, and other practitioners, such as sport psychology consultants and coach developers to analyse the various phases of challenging situations.

The mediating roles of pre-competitive coping and affective states in the relationships between coach-athlete relationship, satisfaction and attainment of achievement goals

ABSTRACT The study is aimed to explore the relationship between coach-athlete relationship, precompetitive coping and affective states, satisfaction and attainment of achievement goals. A sample of 567 French athletes (Mage = 22.10; SD = 5.66; 377 men and 190 women) involved in 75 training groups participated in the study and completed a series of self-report measures in a temporal design with three measure points. Results of multilevel analyses revealed that the coach-athlete dyad (level 2; between-person level of analysis or training groups) and task-oriented coping (level 1; within person level of analysis or individuals) significantly predicted goal attainment (level 1). Moreover, the results of the Sobel test revealed that task-oriented coping (level 1) marginally mediated the relationship between coach-athlete dyad (level 2) and sport satisfaction (level 1). Besides, the coach-athlete dyad (level 1) and Intensity of positive affect (PA) mediated the relationship between coach-athlete dyad and goal attainment. Finally, the coach-athlete dyad (level 1) and Intensity of PA mediated the relationship between coach-athlete dyad and satisfaction (level 1). In conclusion, the display of Coach-Athlete relationship strategies may enhance higher levels of precompetitive task-oriented coping, intensity of PA, goal attainment and satisfaction. Subsequently, coaches and practitioners should focus their training on enhancing coach-athlete relationship as a crucial part of training in order to perform in competitions.

A Case Study Analysis of the Coach–Athlete Dyad in Different Age Grade Nonelite Rugby Union Teams

The coach–athlete dyad is complex where both parties can often have contrasting perceptions of each other. The purpose of this research was to examine coaching behaviors and perceptions of the coach–athlete relationship across different age grades of rugby football union. Coaches (n = 5) and athletes (n = 78) from three separate rugby union teams (Child, Adolescent, and Adult) had their training sessions (n = 3) analyzed using the Coach Analysis and Intervention System. Athlete perceptions of their coaches’ behaviors were measured via the Coaching Behavior Scale for Sport, while coach perceptions of their relationship with their athletes were measured using the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire. Prescriptive coaching styles were observed in all coaches as Coach Analysis and Intervention System results showed high levels of explicit behaviors: “instruction,” “direct management,” and “feedback.” All coaches utilized similar time proportions within sessions for Coach Analysis and Intervention System “Practice,” “Playing,” and “Management” states, respectively. Questionnaire results revealed positive perceptions between coaches and athletes for all teams. Despite positive bidirectional relationships, the prescriptive coaching style displayed by all coaches may not align to best coaching practice. Development of a coach’s behaviors, training content, and perceptions through coach education has the potential to enhance their athletes’ sporting experience, athletic development, and sport-specific competencies.

Wheelchair Basketball Athletes' Perceptions of the Coach-Athlete Relationship.

The majority of research on the coach-athlete relationship has been explored from the perspective of able-bodied athletes. The purpose of this study was to explore wheelchair basketball athletes' perceptions of the coach-athlete relationship. Timelining and semistructured interviews were conducted with six wheelchair basketball athletes, and data were analyzed using a reflexive thematic analysis. Athletes highlighted the important role that parasport coaches played in fostering an enjoyable wheelchair basketball environment and valued coaches who displayed expertise regarding their athletes' equipment and had personal parasport athletic experiences. Additionally, athletes identified personal preferences, including coaches who addressed sex differences and maintained professional relationships at the national level as contributing factors to the coach-athlete relationship. The current results benefit both parasport coaches and athletes by providing a portrayal of coaching behaviors, characteristics, and expertise that not only influence the parasport coach-athlete dyad but also affect the well-being and athletic development of parasport athletes.

Coaching efficacy and coaching effectiveness in predicting athlete satisfaction: A self-other agreement framework

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationships between coaching efficacy (i.e. coaches’ efficacy beliefs) regarding their competence, coaching effectiveness (i.e. athlete's perception regarding their coaches’ efficacy), and the athletes’ level of satisfaction with their sport experience. As both coaches and athletes can have different evaluations of coaches’ abilities, the different perspectives of coaches and athletes can reveal the dynamics within a coach–athlete dyad. We used 380 competitive college basketball coach–player dyads to determine the differences between coaching efficacy and coaching effectiveness. Drawing on the theoretical argument from the self-other agreement framework and self-enhancement bias, we hypothesize that coaching efficacy (i.e. measured from coaches) is higher than coaching effectiveness (i.e. measured from athletes) and that coaching effectiveness can better predict athlete satisfaction than coaching efficacy. We analyze our data using Welch t-test, random coefficient modeling, and polynomial regression with response surface methodology to test our hypotheses. Our results support our hypotheses such that coaching efficacy is significantly higher than coaching effectiveness and that other-ratings have a better predictive validity for athlete satisfaction, as self-ratings (coach's efficacy belief) could be inflated by self-enhancement. Our findings on athletes’ perceptions highlight the importance of athlete-centric coaching mechanisms.

Mutuality in a coached adult sport team: the masters team sport model of interdependence

ABSTRACT Coach-athlete relationships are an important factor influencing sport experiences. Research has focused on understanding relational approaches to coaching Masters athletes primarily as they are applied to individual-sport athletes. This study explored relational coaching strategies within a Masters all-women team context, the nature of dyadic relationships between a coach and each team member, and interdependence in the broader team. We employed multiple semi-structured interviews with 11 competitive Masters synchronised skaters (MSks) and their coach, and in-person observations over the course of a season. Following interpretative phenomenological analyses, we found interdependence extended beyond the coach-athlete dyad plane, that the coach engaged directly and indirectly in two other social-relational planes to foster mutuality in the team, and that MSks cultivated interdependence on their own. In light of the inadequacy of prevalent coach-athlete models to account for these complexities, we introduce the Masters Team Sport Model of Interdependence: a comprehensive model of mutual interdependence accounting for coach-athlete dyads, coach-team interactions, and mutual relationships amongst MSks.

FEATURES OF THE RELATIONSHIP IN THE COACH-ATHLETE DYAD AS A REGULATOR OF BURNOUT IN ATHLETES OF DIFFERENT SEXES

FEATURES OF THE RELATIONSHIP IN THE COACH-ATHLETE DYAD AS A REGULATOR OF BURNOUT IN ATHLETES OF DIFFERENT SEXES

Athlete and coach agreement: Identifying successful performance

Traditional coaching views the coach as an informed resource and the athlete as a reflection of expert knowledge. Recent approaches have criticised a strictly coach driven model of expertise, and in doing so have acknowledged the unique and developing knowledge of athletes, which emerges from extended practice. The growth of the athlete’s contribution in the coach–athlete dyad invites interesting questions about the usefulness of athlete knowledge and the changing role of the coach. Athlete–coach agreement was assessed via a triangulation of quantitative boat speed data from a single sculler and matched to phases of successful rowing that rowers and coaches both agreed on. Coach and rower were able to identify when the boat was travelling its fastest or slowest. However, when the performance was marginally faster or slower, they disagreed, and generally the rowers were more accurate about the performance than their coach. Implications for contemporary coaching practices are considered.

Getting to Know Your Athletes: Strengthening the Coach-Athlete Dyad Using an Integrative Personality Framework

The quality of the coach-athlete relationship is important to athlete development and overall performance in sport. To better enable coaches to foster this relationship, this study was designed to use an integrative personality framework (McAdams, 2013) to gain a deeper, more contextualized understanding of the athlete. Using a case study approach, two Division III collegiate soccer players completed a three-part survey that profiled these individuals as a social actor (layer one), motivated agent (layer two), and autobiographical author (layer three). Results are presented for each athlete, yielding rich, yet different, personality profiles. These profiles identify particular traits, motives, and personal stories that uniquely shape the personalities of these individuals. We discuss the efficacy of using McAdams’ framework as a guiding structure for helping elite coaches better understand their athletes and, subsequently, further develop the coach-athlete relationship. We also discuss the use of McAdams’ framework in the sport context and how it might provide useful insights for advancing the psychological profiling of athletes.

Coping rarely takes place in a social vacuum: Exploring antecedents and outcomes of dyadic coping in coach-athlete relationships

ObjectivesDespite widespread acceptance that coping is an interpersonal phenomenon, sport psychology research has focused largely on athletes' and coaches’ ways of coping individually. The aim of this study was to qualitatively explore coping from an interpersonal perspective (i.e., dyadic coping) in coach-athlete relationships. Methodology and methodsAntecedents and outcomes of dyadic coping were discussed with five coach-athlete dyads. We conducted individual interviews with athletes and coaches and then one interview with each coach-athlete dyad. Interviews were analyzed using dyadic analysis and composite vignettes were created to present the data. Methodological rigor was enhanced by focusing on credibility, resonance, rich rigor, significant contribution, and meaningful coherence. ResultsFive themes were identified. These represented the essence of dyadic coping (theme: the essence of dyadic coping), antecedents of dyadic coping (themes: lock and key fit, friendship and trust, communication of the stressor), and outcomes of dyadic coping (theme: protection and support). The first theme captures coaches' and athletes’ understanding of dyadic coping. The antecedent themes represent the factors that were necessary for dyadic coping to occur. Protection and support relates to the positive nurturing environment that was discussed as an outcome of dyadic coping. ConclusionThe results extend published research by exploring antecedents and outcomes of dyadic coping in sport. The findings highlight that dyadic coping was prevalent in coach-athlete relationships when various antecedents (lock and key fit, friendship and trust, communication of the stressor) existed. Protection and support were pertinent outcomes of dyadic coping that contributed to personal and relationship growth.

A season-long examination of the intervention tone of coach–athlete interactions and athlete development in youth sport

ObjectivesCoaches are a primary influence on athletes' development in youth sport (Horn, 2008). However, the intervention tone of coaches' behaviour has not been directly observed. The purpose of this study was to examine associations between the intervention tone exhibited by youth sport coaches and athletes' individual developmental trajectories over the course of a season. DesignShort-term longitudinal study with behavioural observation. MethodFifty-five athletes and their coaches from five youth volleyball teams were observed at three time points, and the intervention tone of interactive behaviour was systematically coded and organized by coach–athlete dyad. Athletes completed measures of the 4C's of athlete development (competence, confidence, connection, character) at each time point, which were used to create individualized developmental trajectories. Person-centred analyses were used to examine associations between athletes' developmental trajectories and their unique interactive experiences with their coach. ResultsCluster analysis revealed the presence of three distinct clusters based on athletes' developmental trajectories: 1) high and increasing, 2) low and decreasing, and 3) moderate and maintaining, with athletes from each team distributed across clusters. Analysis of dyadic interaction profiles revealed significant differences in interactive behaviour between clusters. ConclusionsResults suggest that differences in coach–athlete interactive experiences are associated with different developmental trajectories over the course of a season, even for athletes working with the same coach, highlighting the individualized nature of coaches' influence on young athletes. Practical implications for coaches include a critical awareness of their unique interactive relationship with each athlete independently, as well as the importance of fostering these relationships with regard to young people as more than just athletes.

The Coaching Needs of High Performance Female Athletes within the Coach-Athlete Dyad

Within the research literature there is little work that has examined how coaches (and coaching) can positively influence female athletes’ continued participation and development in performance sport. One barrier that has been recently cited that prevents more women from progressing in sport is the inability of coaches to understand how to engage their female athletes. With this in mind, utilising a phenomenological approach, the current study focused on the coaching preferences of female athletes within the elite coach-athlete dyad. Through interviews with 27 current high performance female athletes, four major coaching needs were found. These were: to be supported as a person as well a performer, coaching to be a joint endeavour, the need for positive communication, and recognition of the salience of gender within the coach-athlete dyad. The findings highlight the complexities and contradictions that are inherent within such a relationship, but ultimately provide evidence that the relational expertise of coaches is at the forefront of these women’s coaching needs. The present study also demonstrates that gender is a salient influence on the coach-athlete relationship. Such findings hold practical significance through demonstrating the need for gender-responsive coaching practitioners.

Effects of big-five personality traits on the quality of relationship and satisfaction in Chinese coach-athlete dyads.

The present study examined the influence of personality traits on the quality of the Chinese coach-athlete relationship and satisfaction through a dyadic research design. A total of 350 coach-athlete dyads completed a self-report instrument that assessed personality traits, as well as perceptions of relationship quality and satisfaction with training. Results revealed that: (a) actor effects (i.e., actor's personality will predict his or her own perceptions of relationship quality) of personality traits, namely, conscientiousness, extroversion, and neuroticism, on both coaches' and athletes' perceptions of relationship quality and (b) partner effects (an actor's own personality will predict his or her partner's perceptions of relationship quality) of only athletes' personality, namely, conscientiousness, extroversion, and neuroticism, on their coaches' perceptions of relationship quality. The findings suggested that each relationship member's personality trait contributed independently to relationship quality, and both actor and partner effects of the relationship quality on satisfaction with training were found to be significant. In Chinese sports culture, there presents a unique dynamics of personality and relationship quality among coach-athlete dyad.

Talent development and ecology of practice in aprofessional club

This study attempts to explore sports participation, dominant relationships and contextual influences in a professional environment through the perspective of social actors within the club. Participant observation, semi-structured interviews alongside with a field diary were the instruments used to assess how the interpersonal context, competitive environment and the organisational structure impact on youth sports participation. This study has demonstrated a twofold reality, how weak organisation and good coaching create a climate that has direct implications on youth sports participation. Indeed, results show that youth competitive climate and the search for status recognition, desire and uncertainty of professionalisation are the main characteristics of this environment. Researchers also acknowledged the fact that the main relationships carried out in these environments are the coach-athlete dyad in a way to foster a more pronounced mastery climate. Coach and parents are important positive assets in talent development, as well as the overall organisation. Significant others perceive the athletes’ competitive and professional disposition to train, to compete and to be in a constant search for sport performance. These results suggest new avenues of research in the way of youth sports talent management and the search for sports contextual change agents. Implications for applied practitioners and researchers are explored.

Attachment Styles Within the Coach-Athlete Dyad: Preliminary Investigation and Assessment Development

The present preliminary study aimed to develop and examine the psychometric properties of a new sport-specific self-report instrument designed to assess athletes’ and coaches’ attachment styles. The development and initial validation comprised three main phases. In Phase 1, a pool of items was generated based on pre-existing self-report attachment instruments, modified to reflect a coach and an athlete’s style of attachment. In Phase 2, the content validity of the items was assessed by a panel of experts. A final scale was developed and administered to 405 coaches and 298 athletes (N = 703 participants). In Phase 3, confirmatory factor analysis of the obtained data was conducted to determine the final items of the Coach-Athlete Attachment Scale (CAAS). Confirmatory factor analysis revealed acceptable goodness of ft indexes for a 3-first order factor model as well as a 2-first order factor model for both the athlete and the coach data, respectively. A secure attachment style positively predicted relationship satisfaction, while an insecure attachment style was a negative predictor of relationship satisfaction. The CAAS revealed initial psychometric properties of content, factorial, and predictive validity, as well as reliability.

Coach as Unfair and Uncaring

Qualitative research can lead to new, emergent findings, and qualitative researchers should remain open to this possibility (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009). Grounded in research on coach effectiveness (e.g., Becker, 2009) and guided by phenomenological inquiry (Pollio, Henley, & Thompson, 1997), two unexpected themes emerged from a study on athletes' experiences with poor coaching. These two themes, the coach as uncaring and the coach as unfair, represent how athletes interpreted the coach's actions as unethical. While the findings of this study emerged unexpectedly, they nonetheless provide meaningful narratives of distrust and apathy. Recommendations for policy are given along with the urgent need for more research on ethics in the coach-athlete dyad.

Exploring Touch Communication Between Coaches and Athletes

In athletics, coaches and athletes share a unique and important relationship. Recently Jowett and her colleagues (Jowett & Cockerill, 2003; Jowett & Meek, 2000; Jowett & Ntoumanis, 2003, 2004; Jowett & Timson-Katchis, 2005) utilized relationship research (focusing on, for example, marital, familial and workplace relationships) from conjoining fields, and in particular social and cognitive psychology, to develop and test a four-component model (4 C’s) that depicts the most influential relational and emotional components (closeness, commitment, complementarity and co-orientation) of coach-athlete relationships. Proceeding from a review of the literature on human touch communication to examine research on the power of touch to exchange relational and emotional messages (Hertenstein et al., 2006), the present study explores coaches’ and athletes’ collective experiences of communicating via touch, utilizing in-depth interviews with eight college coaches and athletes. A phenomenological approach was used to gather, analyze and interpret the data, drawing on Merleau-Ponty’s (1945/1962) philosophical exploration of perception and human experience, which emphasizes the body as a means of communicating with the world. The findings indicate that touch between coaches and athletes increased at major events when emotions and tensions ran high. In addition, touch involved showing appreciation, instructing, comforting and giving attention, and affected perceptions of relationships. The findings also show that touch communication is influenced by societal factors, such as gender, relational stage, and what spectators, parents and other athletes may think. By illustrating how touch is enacted and experienced by a group of college coaches and athletes, the study represents an initial step toward understanding touch communication in the coach-athlete dyad.

Closeness, co-orientation and complementarity in coach–athlete relationships: What male swimmers say about their male coaches

The aim of this study was to study the quality of the coach–athlete relationship. Utilising the three interpersonal constructs of closeness, co-orientation, and complementarity [Jowett, S. (2003). When the ‘honeymoon’ is over: a case study of a coach–athlete dyad in crisis. The Sport Psychologist, 17, 444–460; Jowett, S. & Meek, G. A. (2000). The coach–athlete relationship in married couples: an exploratory content analysis. The Sport Psychologist, 14, 157–175] as a framework to guide our exploration, athletes' perceptions of the relationship quality with their coaches were explored. Participants were five male swimmers from the Swiss national swimming team. All five athletes held international titles and were preparing for the 2004 Olympic Games. A semi-structured interview schedule was employed to obtain qualitative data. The responses of the athletes were content analysed. The results show that the coach–athlete relationship plays an important role for the swimmers investigated. The relationship comprised essential coach–athlete requirements and social relationship (closeness), communication and setting of objectives/goals (co-orientation), as well as acceptance and respect of roles (complementarity). It was revealed that swimmers placed great importance in maintaining good relations with their coach. The content analysis has highlighted the nature of the coach–athlete relationship in an individual sport (swimming) in the context of the three interpersonal constructs of closeness, co-orientation and complementarity. The type of relationship formed as reported from the male athletes was personal and caring, and played a central role in improving performance. Theoretical considerations and difficulties in classifying some 10% of the responses lead to the conclusion that, from a conceptual point of view, the constructs have to be re-examined.

When the “Honeymoon” Is Over: A Case Study of a Coach-Athlete Dyad in Crisis

In an attempt to investigate the nature of the coach-athlete relationship in a systematic way, Jowett and colleagues (e.g., Jowett & Cockerill, in press; Jowett & Meek, 2000a) employed the interpersonal constructs of Closeness, Coorientation, and Complementarity (3 Cs) to reflect coaches’ and athletes’ emotions, cognitions, and behaviors respectively. This study utilized the 3 Cs in order to examine the nature of a single typical coach-athlete dyad that experiences interpersonal conflict. The dyad was interviewed and their responses were content analyzed. The analysis revealed a marked difference in the coach’s and athlete’s perceptions about their athletic relationship and areas of emotional isolation, disagreements, and incompatibility. The findings are discussed within the 3 Cs model.