CO2-saturated Water Research Articles

Impact of O2 Content on the Corrosion Behavior of X65 Mild Steel in the Gaseous, Liquid, and Supercritical CO2 Streams

The CO2 stream in a carbon capture utilization and storage application generally includes impurities that could cause internal corrosion of CO2 pipelines. The general and localized corrosion behavior with a variety of O2 concentrations for X65 mild steel both in water-saturated CO2 and CO2-saturated water environments was evaluated using an autoclave. Corrosion tests were performed at 8 MPa and 25°C, 8 MPa and 35°C, and 4 MPa and 35°C to simulate the liquid, supercritical, and gaseous CO2 transportation. Results indicate that notably higher general corrosion rates were recorded at each O2 concentration in the CO2-saturated water phase than those in the water-saturated CO2 environment. The general corrosion rates did not show gradual rise at 0 ppm to 2,000 ppm of O2; instead, a maximum was measured at 1,000 ppm of O2 at 8 MPa and 25°C, and 50 ppm O2 at 8 MPa and 35°C in the water-saturated CO2 environment and 50 ppm at 8 MPa and 25°C, and 100 ppm at 8 MPa and 35°C in the CO2-saturated water environment. The general corrosion rate at 4 MPa and 35°C followed a different changing trend with O2 content from that in 8 MPa, and 25°C and 35°C both in the water-saturated CO2 and the CO2-saturated water environments. Localized corrosion or an average corrosion rate of beyond 0.1 mm/y was identified in each test in the CO2-saturated water environment. When O2 was introduced, a more porous corrosion product scale was detected on the coupon surfaces. A final series of corrosion tests with 100 ppm and 2,000 ppm O2 and 60% and 80% relative humidity in a CO2 environment did not show any sign of localized corrosion attack, and the average corrosion rates were below 0.1 mm/y at 8 MPa, 25°C and 35°C, and 4 MPa and 35°C.

Formation of lithium carbonate nano-particles using a massively arrayed microfluidic fiber reactor

Microfluidic-based nanoprecipitation is an important tool in modern process intensification to form nanoparticles with well controlled size, size distribution and surface properties. Lithium carbonate nanoparticles were formed continuously with controlled size distribution in the present work using a vertical microfluidic fiber contactor/reactor. The reactor operates as an industrially relevant massively arrayed microfluidic environment which can be scaled for high throughput. Lithium carbonate nanoparticles are an important intermediate for the mining, recycling and production of lithium ion for batteries, pore formers for fuel cell catalysis, and even in pharmaceuticals. Formation of such nanoparticles in a microfluidic environment has the potential for elegant control of polydispersity, and for the fiber contactor/reactor the micro-environment is massively arrayed and high throughput is simultaneously possible. Continuous microfluidic fractional precipitation of lithium carbonate nanoparticles with diameters as small as 5.9 nm is described. The solvent was a CO2-saturated water solution and the anti-solvent was isopropanol. The effects of process parameters (including temperature, surfactant concentration, antisolvent strength, and process flowrate) on product size and polydispersity were examined. In particular, lower temperatures seemed to produce low polydispersity. The product was characterized using dynamic light scattering (DLS). A computational fluid dynamics model is also presented to predict the nucleation point (along the length of the reactor) where nanoparticles were likely forming. Correlation to crystal growth mechanisms in the reactor and the importance of reactor length (Otswald versus digestive ripening) is discussed, residence time being one potential contributing factor to the low polydispersity.

Hydrate formation from CO2 saturated water under displacement condition

Hydrate formation during the process of displacing pore fluid is of great significance for CO2 subsea storage and gas production from natural gas hydrates. In this work, the nucleation kinetics of CO2 hydrate under displacement condition was investigated using CO2 saturated water and sea sand. For comparative analysis, similar experiments were also conducted under static conditions. The experimental results show that the changes of temperature and pressure under displacement condition are not necessarily the same as those under static condition. The induction time and the temperature increase are 206.8–723.0 min and 0.1–2.3 K, respectively, at experimental temperatures of 270.8–273.7 K and pressures of 4.3 and 5.0 MPa, which are smaller than those obtained from static experiments under the same conditions. The two variables exhibit the stochastic character of a lognormal distribution. The flow disturbance not only can promote hydrate nucleation and shorten induction time, but also homogenize the temperature field, reducing the randomness of hydrate nucleation and temperature increase. But the flow may entrain some hydrate crystals, resulting in a low hydrate saturation. Thus, the permeability of the static experiment (11.6–18.8 μm2) is smaller than that of the displacement experiment (13.3–21.5 μm2) at the same temperature and pressure conditions. Relatively, the experimental results of permeability are in agreement with the predicted values of Masuda model and Dai model.

High-pressure carbonation of mortar as a model for recycled concrete aggregates

Accelerated carbonation is recognized as a possible way to improve the quality of recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) and thus increase the possibilities of their use for concrete manufacturing. This work is a contribution to exploring high-pressure carbonation as a possible technology for carbonation of cement-based RCA. Using mortar powder and cylinders as a model for RCA, the work established that mortar with sufficient water content can be nearly fully carbonated at 138 kg of CO2 per tonne of mortar in less than 30 min with high pressure CO2. The presence of water inside the mortar’s porous structure appeared to be a factor of paramount importance for carbonation of mortar, whereas using water-saturated CO2 was of no benefit. Increasing CO2 pressure and temperature both improved carbonation kinetics of mortar within the range of pressure and temperature conditions tested.

Experimental evidence of the effect of solute concentration on the collective evolution of bubbles in a regular pore-network

The dissolution of bubbles confined in porous media is relevant to applications such as carbon sequestration and soil remediation. Recent numerical work indicates that a rich variety of collective dissolution behaviors can be obtained depending on the initial solute concentration, the size distribution of bubbles and the structure of the porous network. However, there is only sparse experimental evidence that supports these findings. Here, we present an experimental study that uses optical microscopy to track the dissolution of CO2 bubbles in a two-dimensional porous network etched on a microfluidic chip filled with CO2–saturated water. We consider two distinct level of initial liquid supersaturation for situations involving a single isolated bubble and small bubble clusters, and observe dissolution, growth or a combination of these processes. A pore-network model is used to complement the experimental observations with information on local concentration development. The model captures qualitatively the evolution of the bubble size in each case tested experimentally and enables shedding light on the interplay between the inter- and intra-pore diffusive fluxes in driving the dissolution process.

Simultaneous inhibition of natural gas hydrate formation and CO2/H2S corrosion for flow assurance inside the oil and gas pipelines

Compatibility problems are observed during the co-injection of corrosion and gas hydrate inhibitors inside oil and gas pipelines, which reduces their performance. In this study, the newly synthesized dual-purpose inhibitors (DPIs) were developed to overcome the compatibility challenge between the inhibitors. A detailed experimental and computational study was performed to investigate the inhibition activity of DPIs. The results of constant cooling experiments showed that the inhibitors significantly prevented natural gas hydrate formation. DPI2 with a propyl pendant group was the best sample by providing a subcooling temperature of 18.1 °C at 5000 ppm. DPI1 and DPI3 decreased gas consumption by 2.6 and 2.4 times, respectively, compared to pure water. In addition, molecular dynamics simulation revealed that the transportation of gas molecules to the growing hydrate cages was disrupted due to DPI2 adsorption on the surface of the hydrate, which partially covered it and acted as a mass transfer barrier. Furthermore, the interaction of the anion part of the inhibitor with the nearest neighbor water molecules lowered the water activity to form the hydrogen-bonding networks for the hydrate formation. According to corrosion measurements, DPIs suppressed the corrosion rate of mild steel in H2S–CO2 saturated oilfield-produced water, and a maximum inhibition efficiency of 96.3% was obtained by adding 1000 ppm of DPI2. Moreover, the estimated adsorption energy of DPI2 were relatively high and matched with experimental data, implying that the inhibitor has a high degree of adsorption on the metal for forming a protective layer on the mild steel surface. These findings signified that DPIs provide a potential hybrid inhibition of corrosion and gas hydrate formation for flow assurance applications and reduce the operation costs.

CO2 storage in chalks: What are we afraid of?

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) has been recognized as an effective strategy to limit the temperature rise to 1.5 °C by 2050 under the Paris Agreement. As a result, more than 50 CCS pilot or large-scale projects have been commissioned in recent decades, targeting mainly sandstone reservoirs for their favourable petrophysical properties. Although many discussions and practical procedures have been developed, large-scale CO2 storage in carbonates has not been implemented due to practical risks associated with rapid geochemical interactions. This study attempts to evaluate the feasibility of CO2 storage in carbonate chalk formations by focusing on changes in storage capacity (porosity) and injectivity (permeability) over time. A series of laboratory tests were carried out on Stevns Klint chalk from Denmark after exposure to CO2 for 37 days at a fluid pressure of 15 MPa and a temperature of 50 °C. The results obtained indicated a large removal of Ca+2 ions from CO2 saturated water solution and strong precipitation of secondary calcite in the pore structure, which reduced the porosity and permeability of the samples. It seems that CO2 injection into chalk should be done very carefully, as the progressive dissolution of calcite and saturation of the formation water will initiate large secondary calcite precipitation in the long term, leading to a reduction in injectivity and storage capacity over time.

Mineral carbonation of New Caledonian ultramafic mine slag: Effect of glass and secondary silicates on the carbonation yield

New Caledonian nickel (Ni) mines produces ∼12 million metric tons of mine slag every year, that are considered undesired and uneconomic waste materials. However, due to the high content of Mg2+ and Fe2+, these slags exhibit a potential of carbon dioxide (CO2) storage by ex-situ aqueous mineral carbonation. We conducted laboratory batch experiments at 200 °C/ 150 bar, 250 °C/ 300 bar, 300 °C/ 300 bar, in CO2-saturated water to better understand the slag dissolution, secondary mineral formation at the fluid-mineral interface, and the effect of the secondary silicates on the carbonation yield. The slag contains olivine (45 wt%) and glass (55 wt%). Olivine in the slag dissolves faster than glass, contributing to carbonate precipitation (Fe-rich magnesite) at 200 °C/150 bar. At 250 °C/ 300 bar, olivine is almost completely dissolved while glass dissolves only partially, both contributing to the highest recorded carbonation yields of the slag of 44 wt%. Although both olivine and glass are completely dissolved at 300 °C/ 300 bar, the carbonate yield drops at a value half of that at 250 °C/ 300 bar. This is due to formation of large quantity of Mg-bearing phyllosilicates that reduces the amount of Mg2+ available for carbonation. These results emphasize that increasing temperature above 250 °C would not increase the carbonate yield of New Caledonian mine slags. However, as glass only partially reacts at T < 250 °C, mobilizing Mg2+ in glass could potentially increase the carbonation yield, for example by adding suitable organic ligands. Mg-bearing phyllosilicates and amorphous silica that are formed in these experiments do not exhibit passivation properties, and therefore do not affect the carbonation rate.

Study of furfural derivatives as a possible green corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in CO2-saturated formation water

The anticorrosive activity of furfural derivatives, by ex-situ and in-situ syntheses, on mild steel immersed in CO2-saturated formation water solution was evaluated using mass loss measurements, polarization curves, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, quantum chemical calculation, and electrochemical impedance. Furfural thiosemicarbazone presented inhibition efficiency reaching 90.2% for 72 h in immersion. The same molecule, synthesized in-situ by the mixture of the precursors in the corrosive medium, also produced good efficiency, 82.2% for 24 h of immersion, but it decreased over the time due to incomplete conversion of the precursors in furfural thiosemicarbazone.

Pectin-amino acid derivatives as highly efficient green inhibitors for the corrosion of N80 steel in CO2-saturated formation water

Pectin, as the raw material from the waste peel and residue of various plants, was applied to prepare an environmentally friendly, inexpensive, and biodegradable green modified-pectin (P-Gly and P-Lys) corrosion inhibitor. Elemental analysis, FTIR spectroscopy, 1H NMR and XRD analysis confirmed the grafting degrees of amidated pectin were 6.26% (P-Gly) and 7.20% (P-Lys), respectively. The corrosion inhibition mechanism of P-AAs on N80 carbon steel in CO2-saturated groundwater was investigated. It was found that P-AAs showed high corrosion inhibition efficiencies at a low concentration of 800 mg/L: P-Gly (99.01%) and P-Lys (99.36%) with excellent adsorption stability maintained for 120 h. Theoretical calculations including QC based on DFT and GFN-xTB methods and MD-based RDFs revealed the chemisorption of the inhibitors on the Fe surface.

Dissolution and Solubility of the Calcite–Otavite Solid Solutions [(Ca1−xCdx)CO3] at 25 °C

A complete series of the calcite–otavite solid solutions [(Ca1−xCdx)CO3] were prepared, and their dissolution processes lasting nine months were experimentally investigated. For the dissolution in the N2-degassed water, the Ca concentrations of the aqueous phases increased up to the steady states after 5040 h of dissolution, and the Cd concentrations of the aqueous phases increased up to the highest values and then decreased gradually to the steady states of 0.017–6.476 μmol/L after 5040 h of dissolution. For the dissolution in the CO2-saturated water, the Ca and Cd concentrations of the aqueous phases increased up to the peak values and then decreased gradually to the steady states of 0.94–0.46 mmol/L and 0.046–9.643 μmol/L after 5040 h of dissolution, respectively. For the dissolution in the N2-degassed water at 25 °C, the mean solubility products (log Ksp) and the Gibbs free energies of formation (ΔGfθ) were estimated to be −8.45–−8.42 and −1129.65–−1129.48 kJ/mol for calcite [CaCO3] and −11.62–−11.79 and −671.81–−672.78 kJ/mol for otavite [CdCO3], respectively. Generally, the log Ksp values decreased non-linearly, and the ΔGfθ values increased linearly with the increasing Cd/(Ca+Cd) mole ratio (XCd) of the (Ca1−xCdx)CO3 solid solutions. In the Lippmann diagrams constructed for the sub-regular (Ca1−xCdx)CO3 solid solutions with the estimated Guggenheim coefficients a0 = −0.84 and a1 = −3.80 for the dissolution in the N2-degassed water or a0 = −1.12 and a1 = −3.83 for the dissolution in the CO2-saturated water, the (Ca1−xCdx)CO3 solid solutions dissolved incongruently, moved progressively up to the quasi-equilibrium curves for otavite and then along the quasi-equilibrium curve from right to left, approached the solutus curve and finally reached the minimum stoichiometric saturation curve for calcite. The considerably Cd-poor aqueous phases were finally in equilibrium with the CdCO3-rich solid phases.

Effects of carbonated water injection on the pore system of a carbonate rock (coquina)

Abstract CO2 injection is a well-known Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) technique that has been used for years to improve oil extraction from carbonate rock and other oil reservoirs. Optimal functioning of CO2 injection requires a thorough understanding of how this method affects the petrophysical properties of the rocks. We evaluated pore-scale changes in these properties, notably porosity and absolute permeability, following injection of CO2-saturated water in two coquina outcrop samples from the Morro do Chaves Formation in Brazil. The coquinas are close analogues of Pre-salt oil reservoirs off the coast of southern Brazil. The effects of carbonated water injection were evaluated using a series of experimental and numerical steps before and after coreflooding: cleaning, basic petrophysics, microtomography (microCT) imaging, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses, and pore network modeling (PNM). Our study was motivated by an earlier experiment which did not show the development of a wormhole in the center of the sample, with a concomitant increase in permeability of the coquina as often noted in the literature. We instead observed a substantial decrease in the absolute permeability (between 71 and 77%), but with little effect on the porosity and no wormhole formation. While all tests were carried out on both samples, here we present a comprehensive analysis for one of the samples to illustrate changes at the pore network level. Different techniques were used for the pore-scale analyses, including pore network modeling using PoreStudio, and software developed by the authors to enable a statistical analysis of the pore network. Results provided much insight in how injected carbonated water affects the pore network of carbonate rocks.

Influence of capillary pressure boundary conditions and hysteresis on CO2-water relative permeability

This study examines the effect of capillary pressure boundary conditions and hysteresis on CO2-water relative permeability. We perform drainage and imbibition injections into a Berea sandstone core and a sintered glass core. The cores receive three injection stages: water, then water-saturated CO2 representing drainage, and finally CO2-saturated water representing imbibition. Pressure difference and fluid production are recorded. To generate relative permeability using these data, we propose that the conventional Johnson–Bossler–Naumann (JBN) method be modified to incorporate capillary pressure boundary conditions. We then compare the results yielded by the JBN and modified-JBN methods, which generate relative permeability for post-breakthrough water saturation. To generate relative permeability for all states of saturation, history matching is used, in which the relative permeability of a numerical model is tuned until the simulated data match the experimental data.For drainage, history-matched relative permeability curves are found to be significantly closer to modified-JBN estimates than to JBN estimates. This indicates that the proposed modified-JBN method can provide a more accurate initial guess for history matching. In addition, using the initial guess generated by modified-JBN is found to reduce the chance of non-unique history-matched relative permeability curves.For imbibition, the CO2-water relative permeability curve is generated directly from history matching because the experimental data are too sparse to apply the JBN or modified-JBN method. Both CO2 and water imbibition relative permeability are found to differ from the drainage relative permeabilities. This so-called relative permeability hysteresis is attributed to contact angle hysteresis. In addition, imbibition CO2-water relative permeability is found to be sensitive to imbibition capillary pressure boundary conditions.

New Insight on Carbon Dioxide-Mediated Hydrogen Production.

A new approach to hydrogen production from water is described. This simple method is based on carbon dioxide‐mediated water decomposition under UV radiation. The water contained dissolved sodium hydroxide, and the solution was saturated with gaseous carbon dioxide. During saturation, the pH decreased from about 11.5 to 7–8. The formed bicarbonate and carbonate ions acted as scavengers for hydroxyl radicals, preventing the recombination of hydroxyl and hydrogen radicals and prioritizing hydrogen gas formation. In the presented method, not yet reported in the literature, hydrogen production is combined with carbon dioxide. For the best system with alkaline water (0.2 m NaOH) saturated with CO2 under UV‐C, the hydrogen production amounted to 0.6 μmol h−1 during 24 h of radiation.

In-depth insight into the inhibition mechanism of the modified and combined amino acids corrosion inhibitors: “intramolecular synergism” vs. “intermolecular synergism”

In this work, amino acid (L-histidine (LHD)) and 1-phenylthiourea (PT) were mixed as the combined corrosion inhibitors (LHD + PT). Meanwhile, LHD was also modified with phenyl isothiocyanate to develop a novel corrosion inhibitor (phenylcarbamothioyl)histidine (PT-HD), which has a combined structure of LHD and PT. Then LHD + PT is the “intermolecular synergism”, while PT-HD could be regarded as the “intramolecular synergism” of LHD and PT. The inhibition performances of LHD + PT and PT-HD for the corrosion of carbon steel in CO2-saturated formation water were investigated by electrochemical tests and surface analyses. Additionally, the intrinsic difference in the inhibition performance and mechanism of LHD + PT and PT-HD were in-depth revealed by theoretical calculations. The experimental results indicate that PT-HD exhibits better inhibition performance than LHD + PT (inhibition efficiency of 99.2% for 0.4 mM LHD + PT and 99.3% for 0.4 mM PT-HD), i.e., the “intramolecular synergistic inhibition effect” is stronger than the “intermolecular synergistic inhibition effect”. The theoretical calculations also indicate that PT-HD has stronger adsorption ability and more effective prevention to the invasion of aggressive species. The higher inhibition efficiency of PT-HD is associated with the fact that the LHD and PT fragments in PT-HD molecule are closely linked by chemical bond, forming a more compact adsorbed inhibitor film on steel surface.

Analytical model for fines migration due to mineral dissolution during CO2 injection

Recent laboratory studies have proposed carbonate mineral dissolution as a main mechanism for fines migration during CO2 injection. However, existing mathematical models of fines migration ignore mineral dissolution as a mechanism for fines generation. To address this gap, we derive a basic system of governing equations that incorporate fines migration induced by mineral dissolution. An analytical solution is derived for four zones defined based on normalized porosity and carbonate mineral concentration profiles. These profiles are then used to derive the suspended and retained fines concentrations. The analytical solution is found to be in close agreement with the numerical solution of the basic system of governing equations. To validate our model, we perform injection experiments on four Berea sandstone cores. Each core receives injection of CO2-saturated water of designated salinity 0, 0.17, 0.51, or 1.03 M NaCl.The results suggest that two competitive phenomena occur due to carbonate mineral dissolution during CO2-saturated water injection, i) increased porosity that is responsible for the increase in permeability and ii) fines migration that results in permeability reduction. Dissolution of intergranular cement results in fines dislodge, some of which subsequently cause pore blockage and permeability reduction.For 0, 0.17, and 0.51 M salinity, mineral dissolution is found to be dominant, yielding a net increase in rock permeability due to increased porosity. For 1.03 M salinity, higher dissolution rates are found to cause significantly more fines, yielding a net decrease in rock permeability. The comparison of experimental and modelling data shows high agreement with the experimental data, which validates the proposed model.

Host-guest assemblies of anchoring molecular catalysts of CO2 reduction onto CuInS2/ZnS quantum dots for robust photocatalytic syngas production in water

Simultaneously fulfilling CO2-to-CO and 2H+-to-H2 reactions in water via photocatalyst represents an alternative to produce syngas driven by solar energy. To this end, photocatalyst having ability of simultaneously producing CO and H2 with controllable ratio should be exploited. In this work, we report a self-assembly photocatalyst C1@CD-CuInS2/ZnS quantum dots (QDs) that enabling to produce syngas robustly in CO2-saturated water under visible light irradiation. C1 is a molecular catalyst of linking an adamantine moiety to [Co(TPA)Cl]Cl (TPA = tris (2-pyridylmethyl) amine), while CD-CuInS2/ZnS QDs are semiconductor QDs with structure of CuInS2 core and ZnS shell and containing β-cyclodextrin (CD) on the surface. The C1@CD-CuInS2/ZnS QDs assemblies form by anchoring molecular cobalt catalyst C1 onto cyclodextrin (CD) modified CuInS2/ZnS quantum dots (CD-CuInS2/ZnS QDs) based on host-guest interaction between adamantine in C1 and cyclodextrin in the QDs. In which, C1 functions a molecular catalytic center mainly for CO2 reduction, and CD-CuInS2/ZnS QDs functions as both a light harvester and a hydrogen production center. The C1@CD-CuInS2/ZnS QDs system maintains syngas production activity over 200 h, and produces 184.21 μmol syngas with a CO/H2 ratio of 0.74 (ca. 2:3), exhibiting obvious advantages of syngas production efficiency in comparison to the non-assembled system and pristine CD-CuInS2/ZnS QDs system. Mechanism studies revealed that photoinduced electron transfer between CD-CuInS2/ZnS QDs and C1 occurs. The host-guest interaction improves syngas production activity and stability as well as plays positive role on stability of the molecular catalyst.

Effect of adding organo-modified montmorillonite nanoclay on the performance of oil-well cement paste in CO2-rich environments

This work studies the influence of incorporating organo-modified montmorillonite (OMMT) nanoclay in class G cement pastes on chemical and mechanical resistance in CO2-rich environments. Cement paste specimens, with and without added nanoclay (0.5%, 1%, 2% in wt.), were submitted to degradation tests in CO2-saturated water and wet supercritical CO2, at 90 °C and 15 MPa. Scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, computed X-ray microtomography, pycnometry, Vickers microhardness measurements, and compressive strength tests were used to evaluate the effect of the OMMT nanoclay on the cement paste properties. The addition of 0.5% OMMT nanoclay increased the specific density and the compressive strength of hardened cement paste and decreased chemically modified layer as a result of CO2 attack. However, these effects became less evident with increasing OMMT nanoclay content. Additionally, the Vickers microhardness and compressive strength results suggest that OMMT nanoclay can prevent the high precipitation of carbonates that influences the diffusion of CO2 into cement paste.

Effects of demineralization on food waste biochar for co-firing: Behaviors of alkali and alkaline earth metals and chlorine.

A significant amount of chlorine, and alkali and alkaline earth metal (AAEM) in food waste has been a major limitation to the utilization of food waste as fuel. The present study aims to investigate the behavior of chlorine and AAEM in food waste biochar during pyrolysis, demineralization, and combustion. Food waste compost (FWC) and food waste feedstock (FWF) were selected as raw materials. Three different pyrolysis temperatures from 300 to 500°C and two demineralization processes, water and CO2-saturated water, were employed. As the pyrolysis temperature increased, crystallized salt was removed through demineralization, which further increased the heating value. Effective removal of chlorine was demonstrated in both demineralization methods. During demineralization, re-adsorption of Ca on food waste biochar occurred, which was alleviated by CO2-water demineralization. The total amounts of volatilized Cl and AAEM after CO2-water demineralization were reduced by 74.79-99.38% for FWF and 98.34-99.9% for FWC compared to raw biochar. Furthermore, slagging and fouling potentials for all food waste biochar samples were estimated using various indices. The proposed behavior of Cl and AAEM in food waste biochar during various fabrication conditions provides insight into how food waste biochar can be applied in thermos-electric power plant for co-firing with coal.

Effective Green Ammonia Synthesis from Gaseous Nitrogen and Co2 Saturated-Water Vapor Utilizing a Novel Photocatalytic Reactor

Effective Green Ammonia Synthesis from Gaseous Nitrogen and Co2 Saturated-Water Vapor Utilizing a Novel Photocatalytic Reactor