Copy Film Research Articles

Picture archiving and communications systems (PACS)

Although there has been a recent increase in interest in picture archiving and communication systems (PACS) topics, little has been published to assist the non-technical person in understanding the complexities of the technologies required for a PACS implementation. This issue of Current Problems in Radiology defines each PACS component and explains why each is important in a system design. PACS installations at the University of Florida are used as examples to tie the concepts together. The infrastructure required for PACS consists of the information system interfaces, networks, and databases. Information system interfaces guarantee consistent patient data across all platforms and reduce labor requirements by eliminating duplicate data entry. Data networks move information from the originating location to users around the hospital, clinic, campus, city, or world. In the PACS environment, the data consist of patient and study information as well as images and information about these images. Databases organize the data from multiple sources into a coherent package that can be queried for many different purposes, such as retrieving images, reviewing patient and study information, studying practice statistics, and performing outcomes analysis. PACS components consist of acquisition nodes, archives, and output devices. Acquisition nodes may include “digital modalities” such as CT, MRI, nuclear medicine, and computed radiography (CR), along with devices to convert from analog to digital, such as digitizers and frame grabbers. Options for archives are discussed along with configuration schemes. Output devices include both hard copy (film and paper prints) and soft copy (workstations for display and diagnosis). Finally, a description of the PACS installations at the University of Florida is presented, with comments on some of the difficulties and complexities encountered. A discussion of the cost and benefits of PACS is included, along with a forecast of the future of PACS.

An audit of a radiographer based ultrasound service

A general ultrasound service has evolved over several years. Radiographers undertake the general ultrasound lists, and show the request card and the hard copy films to a radiologist prior to the patient leaving the department. Whilst it is generally accepted for radiographers to carry the burden of obstetric scanning, this is less so for general work. This audit is of a sample of 100 patients out of the general ultrasound lists. These patients underwent the standard service examination by a radiographer and subsequent report by the radiologist. They also had a separate examination and report by an independent radiologist. 42 patients were agreed to have normal findings. 75 diagnoses or observations were made in the remaining 58 patients. Discrepancies arose between the two limbs of the audit in 20 of the observations. Review of the hard copy films and repeat scanning of patients where necessary identified one relevant error by the auditing radiologist and three relevant errors by the standard service. Whilst errors are made both by radiologists and radiographers, it is concluded that the existing radiographer based ultrasound service provides a satisfactory level of accuracy.

Three-dimensional radiation treatment planning study for patients with carcinoma of the lung

Purpose : Several reports in the literature suggest that local-regional control and possibly survival could be improved for inoperable nonsmall cell lung cancer if the radiation dose to the target volume could be increased. Higher doses, however, bring with them the potential for increased side effects and complications of normal tissues. Three-dimensional treatment planning has shown significant potential for improving radiation treatment planning in several sites, both for tumor coverage and for sparing of normal tissue from high doses of radiation and, thus, has the potential of developing radiation therapy techniques that result in uncomplicated local-regional control of lung cancer. We have studied the feasibility of large-scale implementation of true three-dimensional technologies in the treatment of patients with cancers of the thorax. Methods and Materials : CT scans were performed on 10 patients with inoperable nonsmall cell lung cancer to obtain full volumetric image data, and therapy was planned on our three-dimensional radiotherapy treatment planning system. Target volumes were determined using the new ICRU nomenclature—Gross Tumor Volume, Clinical Target Volume, and Planning Target Volume. Plans were performed according to our standard treatment policies based on traditional two-dimensional radiotherapy treatment planning methodologies and replanned using noncoplanar three-dimensional beam techniques. The results were quantitatively compared using dose-volume histograms, dose-surface displays, and dose statistics. Results : Target volume delineation remains a difficult problem for lung cancer. Defining Gross Tumor Volume and Clinical Target Volume may depend on window and level settings of the three-dimensional radiotherapy treatment planning system, suggesting that target volume delineation on hard copy film is inadequate. Our study shows that better tumor coverage is possible with three-dimensional plans. Dose to critical structures (e.g., the heart) could often be reduced (or at least remain acceptable) using noncoplanar beams even with dose escalation to 75 to 80 Gy for the planning volume surrounding the Gross Target Volume. Conclusion : Commonly used beam arrangements for treatment of lung cancer appear to be inadequate to safely deliver tumor doses of higher than 70 Gy. Although conventional treatment techniques may be adequate for tumor coverage, they are inadequate for sparing of normal tissues when the prescription dose is escalated. The ability to use noncoplanar fields for such patients is a major advantage of three-dimensional planning. This capability led to better tumor coverage and reduced dose to critical normal tissues. However, this advantage was achieved at the expense of a greater time commitment by the treatment planning staff (particularly the radiation oncologist) and a greater complexity of treatment delivery. In summary, three-dimensional radiotherapy treatment planning appears to provide the radiation oncologist with the necessary tools to increase tumor dose, which may lead to increased local-regional control in patients with lung cancer while maintaining normal tissue doses at acceptable tolerance levels.

Rapid direct reversal photography.

This is a description of a method which enables fast, direct-reversal photography of radiological images for slides and was designed to retain: (i) continued use of an existing small darkroom; (ii) use of Kodak Rapid Process copy film; and (iii) use of standard X-ray processors. By adaptation of a commercial photographic flash power pack, a flash head and a reflector it is possible to achieve a somewhat expensive but very successful system which enables the very rapid production of good quality image slides for lectures.

420. 複数 MRI 装置の CRT 輝度及び CRT フィルム濃度の一元的管理(写真・画像技術-10 デジタルイメージング)

420. 複数 MRI 装置の CRT 輝度及び CRT フィルム濃度の一元的管理(写真・画像技術-10 デジタルイメージング)

420. 複数 MRI 装置の CRT 輝度および CRT フィルム濃度の一元的管理(第 47 回総会学術大会一般研究発表予稿)

420. 複数 MRI 装置の CRT 輝度および CRT フィルム濃度の一元的管理(第 47 回総会学術大会一般研究発表予稿)

Rock Painting and Petroglyph Recording Projects in Canada

Rock paintings, pictographs, and petroglyphs are vulnerable to natural weathering and threatened by vandalism. Photography can provide accurate records of rock art sites for posterity, interpretation, and research. Photographic methods for red ocher rock paintings in the Canadian shield were investigated, including infrared photography, infrared luminescence, and false-color infrared; ultraviolet reflected and fluorescence photography; and cross-polarization using electronic flash. High contrast copy film with a blue filter was found to be useful. Camera stability, color temperature, film format, and exposure and color reproduction controls are discussed. Digital image processing was found to be applicable to the enhancement of photographic images of rock paintings. The photographic and photogrammetric recording of three sites from the frozen surface of the Churchill River is described. Methods for recording petroglyphs are reviewed. These have included tracing, rubbing, molding, and casting. Electronic flash raking light photography at night and stereophotogrammetry were undertaken at a petroglyph site in marble in Ontario. Machine vision systems, for example, laser scanners, could eventually find application in petroglyph recording and replication. The article includes a comprehensive bibliography of rock art recording methods.

Instant Slides of Radiographs for Lectures

High quality slides of radiographs may be made with a simple, fast, and inexpensive technique using Kodak Rapid Process Copy film. Lecture presentations may include a slide of a pertinent plain radiograph, computed tomography (CT) scan, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Although these slides may be made with a 35 mm SLR camera and flash or with a 35 mm SLR camera and a lighted viewbox, an alternative method is available that is easy to perform, inexpensive, and can produce quality slides in as little as 30 minutes.

Digital chest radiography: effect on diagnostic accuracy of hard copy, conventional video, and reversed gray scale video display formats.

Observer performance tests were conducted to compare the effects on diagnostic accuracy of hard copy (film) versus video display and to determine the diagnostic merits of conventional negative ("white bone") versus positive ("black bone") video displays. Subjective preferences were elicited from each observer for each display modality, and diagnostic accuracy was determined with receiver operating characteristic analysis. Digitized chest radiographs were used, including normal and abnormal cases with a variety of subtle abnormalities. The hard copy was printed with a 1,024 X 1,024-matrix by a high-quality drum scanner in conventional white bone format only. The video images were displayed on a 1,023-line monitor (30 Hz, interlaced) in both white bone and black bone formats with fixed window and brightness settings. Most observers preferred hard copy to video, but preferences were sharply divided between white bone and black bone video. Diagnostic accuracy was significantly greater with hard copy than with video display, and the conventional white bone format was significantly superior in accuracy to the black bone display.

Reproduction of radiographs for 2 X 2 transparencies.

A range of slide films has been tested for use in photographing radiographs, together with variations in filtration and lighting. Kodak ‘Rapid Process’ copy film has some advantages in terms of absolute colour and immediacy of processing. However, overall, we believe that Agfachrome with a Wratten 81C filter is appropriate for doctors photographing radiographs in a hospital setting, while Kodak 5071 copy film with a Wratten 85B filter is best for routine use in the Audiovisual Department. The choice of fluorescent tube in the viewing box is of very great importance.

Use of contact prints for recording polyphenoloxidase isoenzymes separated by electrophoresis

AbstractCrude extracts of polyphenoloxidase (PPO) (E.C. 1.14.18.1) from a variety of food and plant sources were subjected to polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Following electrophoresis, the gels were stained for enzyme activity using catechol and L‐dopa as substrates. Contact prints were made of the enzyme stained gels 30 min after enzyme staining and on the following day. The negative images (white bands on a dark background) clearly showed the number, type, mobility and variation in enzyme staining of isoenzyme forms of PPO separated by electrophoresis. Contact prints were used to identify PPO isoenzyme forms in the leaves, stipules, roots, and stems of broad beans. This method was also used to demonstrate that a single isoenzyme form of PPO in broad bean leaves decreased with leaf age. Photographs, using professional rapid process X‐ray copy film, were also taken of enzyme stained gels for comparison to contact prints. Using contact prints, permanent records of PPO isoenzyme forms can be obtained rapidly, are inexpensive, and reproduce actual gel patterns.

Pseudometastases secondary to film static artifact

Low density areas in the liver on computed tomography (CT) may be produced by cysts, abscesses, or tumors. A case is reported in which film static resulted in multiple focal low density areas in the liver in a patient with lymphoma. This potential pitfall in CT interpretation can be avoided by taking proper measures to avoid film artifacts and by reviewing all cases on the cathode ray tube (CRT) display as well as the hard copy film.

A New Horizontal Gradient, Continuous Flow, Ice Thermal Diffusion Chamber

Abstract A continuous-flow, horizontal gradient, ice thermal diffusion chamber has been developed and tested for heterogeneous ice nucleation of aerosol particles under accurately controlled supersaturations and supercooling in the absence of a substrate. The chamber consists of preprocessing, main, and crystal settling sections. In the preprocessing and main sections, top and bottom plates are coated with clear, smooth ice by a new method. The main section maintains a range of supersaturations across the sample flow. Sample air is sandwiched with filtered and predried air to avoid wall effects and transient supersaturations. Nucleated crystals are received on Mylar copy film in the settling section and processed for analysis based on their temperatures and supersaturations at nucleation. Two numerical models are developed and used to evaluate transient supersaturation development in the shear flow and wall effects in the vertical plane across the flow. Stability of sample flow is confirmed with smoke tests.

Preliminary Results from a New Survey of Ringed Galaxies

AbstractThe SRC-J and ESO-B Sky Survey copy films are being used to compile a major new catalogue of apparent diameters, axis ratios, and relative bar/ring position angles of inner and outer rings in more than one thousand southern galaxies. This paper presents a preliminary analysis of the data for about two hundred SB rings of both types. It is concluded that the rings have a wide range of intrinsic eccentricities, and more importantly that they have preferred alignments, one mode for inner rings and two for outer rings, with respect to bars.

Photographic Image Intensification and Reduction: A Unified Optical Approach

AbstractA simple, non-destructive method of image intensification and reduction is described which can be applied to continuous-tone negative materials. The method employs a commercially available direct copy (reversal) film whose contrast (γ) can be continuously varied by pre-exposure from 0.8 to ~ 10.0. This film is then used with a difTuse-light contact printer to extract images from negatives which have been severely under- or over-exposed. Examples of images extracted from Plus-X negatives which have received from eight SlOps over- to seven stops underexposure are shown. This same process can be used to retrieve usable images from exposures where the chemical or image fog levels approach developed densities of 5.0. The technique compares favourably with the complicated autoradiographic procedures recently introduced for thin negative enhancement but is not affected by high levels of chemical fog. It appears that the process is versatile enough to replace traditional chemical methods of photographic i...

Application of Eastman Kodak's technical pan 2415 film to palynological photomicrography

Abstract Technical Pan 2415 Film, recently introduced by Eastman Kodak Company, can be processed to achieve photomicrographs similar to those obtained by using their recently discontinued High Contrast Copy Film. Exposures were made at an ASA of 80 to 200, and the film was developed in a 1:4 dilution of HC‐110 stock developer for 6 minutes at 21°C. The method is presented as an alternative to the manufacturer's recommended developer dilutions and times, as these resulted in negatives of either too low or too high contrast for use in palynological photomicrography.

Note on a New Film for Making Colored Background Slides

Ways to make colored background slides for presentations are limited. These methods usually involve the use of Diazo film (Elder and Agee 1977) or high-contrast copy film with toner solutions (Hefetz 1977). Recently, a new film designed especially for colored background slides has been developed by Kodak (Lusk 1981). This film produces high quality slides with sharply defined images and vividly colored backgrounds. It can also produce slides with colored backgrounds and differently colored lettering. It requires no toner solutions and does not seem to fade with time as do Diazo slides.

A Special Copying Apparatus for 35-mm Film with Damaged Perforation

As film ages, it shrinks and becomes brittle. As the nature of the film base changes in this way, the film becomes more difficult to project, particularly since repeated use will probably cause damage to the film's perforation. However, it is now possible to copy film with damaged perforation, thus extending the life of important cinematic records and artistic works.

Duplication of dental xeroradiographs

This study investigates the duplication of dental xeroradiographs using duplicating (copy) film, Polaroid photography, and Xerox photocopying. Quantitative studies of the image quality of duplicated images demonstrate similar image degradation with duplication film and Polaroid photography and gross degradation with a Xerox photocopier. Subjective diagnostic assessments by general dentists and dental specialists indicated that copies made with the use of duplication film or Polaroid photography were adequate for the reproduction of dental xeroradiographs, whereas Xerox paper copying was unacceptably poor. This study was supported in part by funds from Biomedical Research Support Grant No. 4-529075-24187-3, National Institutes of Health, United States Public Health Service, Bethesda, Md.

Improved lighting techniques for reproducing radiographs on 35-mm rapid-process copy film.

A view box with blue fluorescent tubes was constructed to decrease exposure time when using 35-mm rapid-process copy film to photograph radiographs and other transparencies. The device reduced exposure time by 70%.