Club Head Speed Research Articles

Association of anthropometrics and physical performance measures to golf-specific variables in collegiate male golfers.

As physical fitness has become more of a central component of competitive golf it is important to have an understanding of the relationship between anthropometric and physical performance on actual golf performance. Thus, the purpose of this investigation was to determine the relationship between measures of anthropometrics and physical performance to golf swing performance. Fourteen division I collegiate golfers performed a battery of tests including the vertical jump, grip strength, rotational medicine ball toss, and sit and reach test in addition to anthropometric measure measurements. Golf specific variables included clubhead speed (CHS), ball velocity (BV) and carry distance (CD) using the participants own driver. Pearson product moment correlations were used to assess the level of relationship between all variables. Statistically significant large positive relationships were found between grip strength and all golf specific variables. Height also showed large significant positive relationship with both CHS and BV. The association between anthropometrics and physical performance and golf specific variables appear to be limited in a group of collegiate male golfers, outside of grip strength. However, this does not mean that physical fitness is irrelevant to golf performance, but caution should be taken in assuming increase in physical performance will have a direct impact on the golf specific variables.

The effects of post activation potentiation warm-up and pre-shot routine programs on driving performance in amateur golfers

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of three different programs, i.e. active dynamic warm-up program plus functional resistance warm-up using Theraband plus pre-shot routine program (AFPR); pre-shot routine program (PR); and active dynamic warm-up program plus functional resistance warm-up using Theraband (AF) on driver club head speed, driving distance, and driving accuracy in the amateur golfers. Fifteen amateur golfers with an average age of 19.67 ± 0.89 years and 4.87 ± 1.77 points of average handicap were assigned to participate in either AFPR, PR or AF program. All participants in the three programs practiced three sessions on non-consecutive days per week during the intervention phase. Each participant’s performance was assessed before and after six weeks of the program through hitting ten maximal drives with the ball flight and swing analyzed using the P3ProSwing Golf Simulator and recorded for the driver club head speed, driving distance, and driving accuracy. Multivariate analysis of variance showed no statistically significant differences (P < .05) of the performances of the golfers participated in the 3 programs (club head speed: F = 1.02, P = 0.33; accuracy: F = 0.32, P = 0.72; distance: F = 0.18, P = 0.83). Furthermore, a paired t-tests also showed no statistically significant (P < .05) improvement occurred in the 3 programs after the six-week training. Although the effect of the 3 programs did not show statistically significant increase in the performance of the amateur golfers, however, the three parameters of the performance, i.e. the driver club head speed, the driving distance and the driving accuracy showed certain improvements. The 3 training programs may have benefit to the amateur golfers with certain increases of their performance.

Is average club head speed a risk factor for lower back injuries in professional golfers? A retrospective case control study

ABSTRACT Background Our hypothesis was that higher average club head speed is correlated with lower back injuries in professional golfers. Methods This was a retrospective case control study of male professional golfers who suffered lower back injuries while playing golf. The injured group was composed of 14 Professional Golfers’ Association (PGA) golfers who withdrew from a PGA tour event due to a back injury during the years 2017–2019. The case-control matching procedure was used to randomly match cases and controls with a 2:1 allocation ratio, respectively, based on age. Variables were chosen based on currently proposed risk factors. Data was statistically analyzed using SPSS 25 Results There were 14 PGA golfers who suffered lower back injuries during the years 2017–2019 who were included in this study. There was no significant difference in age, height, weight or BMI between the injured and control group. The injured group had a higher mean club head speed than the control group (P < 0.01). Conclusion This study found that average club head speed was significantly higher in PGA golfers who suffered back injuries while golfing during a two-year period (2017–2019) when compared with age-matched controls.

Association between the On-Plane Angular Motions of the Axle-Chain System and Clubhead Speed in Skilled Male Golfers

The on-plane rotations of the inclined axle-chain system on the functional swing plane (FSP) can represent the angular motions of the golfer–club system closely. The purpose of this study was to identify key performance factors in golf through a comprehensive investigation of the association between the angular motion characteristics of the axle-chain system and clubhead speed in skilled golfers. Sixty-six male golfers (handicap ≤ 3) performed full-effort shots in three club conditions: driver, 5-iron, and pitching wedge. Swing trials were captured with an optical motion capture system, and the hip/shoulder lines, upper lever, club, and wrist angular positions/velocities were calculated. Time, angular position, range of rotation, and peak angular velocity parameters were extracted and their correlation coefficients (Pearson and Spearman) to actual and normalized clubhead speeds were computed (p &lt; 0.05). Higher clubhead speed was associated with shorter downswing phases, larger rotation ranges (hip/shoulder lines, and upper lever), larger hip–shoulder separation at impact, delayed transitions (hip line and upper lever), faster rotations (backswing, downswing, and impact), and larger angular velocity losses (hip line and upper lever) with additional club- and body-specific correlations. Clubhead speed was not well associated with wrist cock angles/ranges, X-factors/stretches, and timings of the downswing peak.

Eight Weeks of Strength and Power Training Improves Club Head Speed in Collegiate Golfers.

Oranchuk, DJ, Mannerberg, JM, Robinson, TL, and Nelson, MC. Eight weeks of strength and power training improves club head speed in collegiate golfers. J Strength Cond Res 34(8): 2205-2213, 2020-Club head speed (CHS) is a major determinant of drive distance, a key component of golf performance. The purpose of this study was to determine the indirect effects of an 8-week strength and power program on CHS. Twelve (6 men, 6 women) NCAA Division II golfers (20.3 ± 1.5 years) randomly assigned to an intervention or control group underwent either a periodized strength and power program consisting of high-load barbell movements or a bodyweight and rotational movement focused resistance training program. Outcomes were CHS, countermovement jump (CMJ) height, and 1RM back squat (BS), power clean (PC), and deadlift (DL). Dependent t-tests were used to assess differences in outcome variables pre-to-post for each group, independent t-tests were used to assess differences between groups, and Pearson correlations were used to assess associations between CHS and outcome variables. On average, the intervention group experienced improvements in all outcome variables except peak CHS (p = 0.60); the control group displayed no changes in any outcome variable except a decrease in average CHS (p = 0.028). Compared with the control group, the intervention group experienced greater improvements in average CHS, BS, PC, and average and peak CMJ height (p ≤ 0.05). Additionally, CHS had large associations with PC (r = 0.70, p = 0.012), BS (r = 0.64, p = 0.025), DL (r = 0.54, p = 0.068) and CMJ (r = 0.73, p = 0.007). These results suggest that improving muscular strength and power by increasing PC, BS, and CMJ is associated with increased CHS in collegiate golfers. Integrating a high-load, barbell-focused strength and power program may be beneficial for improving CHS and indirectly, golf performance.

The effects of strength and conditioning interventions on golf performance: A systematic review

ABSTRACT There is a growing body of literature on strength and conditioning (S&C) interventions for golfers of various skill levels. The aim of this systematic review was to evaluate the effects of S&C interventions on measures of golf performance (clubhead speed, ball speed, distance, etc.). Three databases (PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science) were searched and twenty-five studies identified that evaluated the effects of a S&C intervention on at least one golf performance measure compared to a control or comparison group. Most studies used combinations of strength training, plyometrics, stretching or core exercise, with many finding a benefit. Though it varied across studies and outcomes, average increases in clubhead speed, ball speed and distance measures were 4–6.4% when significant findings were synthesized. Four studies also found significant changes to golf swing kinematics, while three others found positive effects on measures of accuracy or consistency. Future research should compare different S&C interventions, explore the role of training status, skill level and intervention duration on the effects of S&C interventions, and report individual responses in addition to group data. Further, research should continue to evaluate effects on swing kinematics, accuracy and direct golf performance measures (e.g., handicap index).

Biomechanical Comparison Of The Half To Full Golf Swing - Clinical Implications

PURPOSE: Golf is popular, with many middle-aged participants. A concern for healthcare workers is how to advise those wishing to return to golf after a lower extremity (LE) injury or surgery. A common recommendation is to use a half swing, however, it is not known whether this reduces the motion or muscular torque for the LE. The purpose of this study was to examine the peak torques and positions of the hip during a half swing versus a full golf. METHODS: 11 healthy amateur male golfers with handicaps &#8804; 21 participated in this study. All participants completed 20 golf swings (10 full swings, 10 half swings). A 10-camera motion analysis system, with force plates, were used to record swing data. Data was reduced using a 3-D modeling program and standard inverse dynamics were used to determine internal net joint torques. Peak torques (Nm; normalized by %BW.Ht) and movement positions (degrees) were analyzed in SPSS (Version 24) Differences and correlations considered significant if at the .05 level of probability. A repeated measures ANCOVA (club-head velocity in mph, as the covariate) was used to compare half to full swing for each movement. RESULTS: Subjects had an average age of 44±16 years and an average handicap of 13±6. Club-head speed ranged from 69 to 113mph, with an average of 91±12mph. The highest torques in both full (12.02±1.97 Nm/%BW.Ht) and half swings (12.04±2.07 Nm/%BW.Ht) occurred in trail hip extension. This was followed by lead hip flexion and hip abduction, and trail hip abduction in both swing styles. (6.58±2.46, 6.04±2.07 and 5.75±1.11 Nm/%BW.Ht, respectively). The highest peak positions were in the trail leg for flexion and abduction. There was a significant correlation between each half and full swing position ranging from r=.85 to r=.98. Repeated measures ANCOVAs found no significant differences between half and full golf swings. CONCLUSIONS: Contrary to a pilot study, our data show that using a half swing did not reduce the amount of internal torque around the hip, as compared to a full swing. All torques were similar to a published study in which it was noted that the torques were much higher than reported hip torques for walking and activities of daily living. These findings suggest that clinicians should use caution in recommending a half vs a full swing for those returning to golf following an injury or surgery.

The effects of audible feedback as a coaching strategy on golf skill learning for novice players

ABSTRACT Effective golf coaching has been a critical issue for trainees and coaches. We found that most conventional golf coaching systems are insufficiently supported by scientific evidence and require continued development of skill learning processes. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of a novel tagging teaching approach using an audible feedback for novice golfers to improve their kinematic characteristics and golf swing performance. In a controlled experiment, 24 male novice golfers were randomly assigned to either the tagging (n = 13) or the non-tagging (conventional, n = 11) training group, receiving a 1.5-hour training session 3 times per week for 5 consecutive weeks. Kinematic data of downswing trajectories, from the downswing to the follow-through (DF), were collected to examine the between-group differences in the angular velocity of pelvis rotation and clubhead, and the centre of mass (COM) displacement. The results showed that the kinematic characteristics and swing performances (clubhead and ball speed, clubface angle, flight time, and carry distance) of tagging training group were better than non-tagging training group. The study demonstrated the superiority of an audible cueing approach over the traditional approach in effectively enhancing golf swing performance.

Could knee joint mechanics during the golf swing be contributing to chronic knee injuries in professional golfers?

ABSTRACT Full three-dimensional movements and external moments in golfers’ knees and the possible involvement in injuries have not been evaluated using motion capture at high sample frequencies. This study measured joint angles and external moments around the three anatomical axes in both knees of 10 professional golfers performing golf drives whilst standing on two force plates in a motion capture laboratory. Significant differences were found in the knee joint moments between the lead and trail limbs for the peak values and throughout all stages during the swing phase. A significantly higher net abduction moment impulse was seen in the trail limb compared with the lead limb (−0.518 vs. −0.135 Nms.kg−1), indicating greater loading over the whole swing, which could contribute to knee lateral compartment or anterior cruciate ligament injuries. A significant correlation (r = −0.85) between clubhead speed at ball contact and maximum joint moment was found, with the largest correlations being found for joint moments at the top of the backswing event and at the end of the follow-through. Therefore, although knee moments can contribute to high clubhead speeds, the large moments and impulses suggest that they may also contribute to chronic knee injuries or exacerbate existing conditions.

GOLF SWING VARIABILITY IN ELITE FEMALE JUNIOR GOLFERS

The aim of the study was to determine the variability of golf swing execution in lower and upper body parameters for two golf clubs. Eleven elite female golfers of junior age volunteered in the study and performed 10 trials with mid-iron and with driver at laboratory conditions. A 3D motion capture system was used to measure the lower and upper body movement parameters and club head speed. To assess variability, the coefficient of variation (CV%) and biological coefficient of variation (BCV%) were calculated. Two-tailed t test was used to identify differences between mid-iron and driver variability for each selected kinematic parameter. Any significant difference in variability of kinematics parameters was found between mid-iron club and driver club. However, for both clubs, we found high stability of performance in timing parameters and of lower limbs kinematic parameters at three selected moments of the golf swing. We conclude that timing stability may be the key to achieve the effective and repeatable golf swing in both golf clubs types and that high intra-individual variability of performance may be due to large age range in the study group.

Online sonification for golf putting gesture: reduced variability of motor behaviour and perceptual judgement.

This study investigates whether real-time auditory feedback has a direct behavioural or perceptual effect on novices performing a golf putting task with limited visual feedback. Due to its significant role in the success of a putt, club head speed was selected as the parameter for sonification. Different combinations of synthesisers, timbral modulations, scales, and mappings were developed to examine whether particular sound classes influenced performance. When compared to trials with static pink noise, we found that, despite their vision being limited at impact, participants were able to use different types of sonification to significantly reduce variability in their distance from the target and ball location estimation. These results suggest that concurrent sound can play an important role in reducing variability in behavioural performance and related perceptual estimations. In addition, we found that, when compared to trials with static pink noise, participants were able to use sonification to significantly lower their average impact velocity. In the discussion, we offer some trends and observations relative to the different sound synthesis parameters and their effects on behavioural and perceptual performance.

Relationship between Trunk Muscularity and Club Head Speed in Male Golfers.

This study examined how the volume of trunk muscles and its bilateral asymmetry are related to club head speed in golfers. Fourteen right-handed male golfers performed five driver shots, and the club head speed for each trial was calculated from a three-dimensional reflective marker position of the club head immediately before impact. The volume of each side of the rectus abdominis, erector spinae, psoas major, quadratus lumborum, lateral abdominal wall muscle, and multifidus was determined using magnetic resonance imaging. For each muscle, the ratio of the larger to smaller side in muscle volume was calculated to assess bilateral asymmetry. The club head speed correlated positively with the volume of each side of the rectus abdominis and erector spinae, left quadratus lumborum, and the asymmetric ratio of the psoas major (r=0.595-0.747), but negatively with the asymmetric ratio of the quadratus lumborum (r=-0.641). Multiple regression analysis revealed that the right erector spinae volume and the asymmetric ratio of the psoas major were significant contributors for the club head speed (R2=0.797). These results indicate that the variation in the club head speed can be strongly explained by the absolute volume and bilateral asymmetry of specific trunk muscles.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF GOLF CLUBHEAD MOTION AT IMPACT

The purpose of the study was to investigate clubhead kinematics during the impact phase of a golf swing. Three highly skilled golfers of a distinguished body type were instructed to perform driver, 6-iron and pitching wedge trials. A high-speed imaging system was used to capture the clubhead motion near the impact. Conventional golf swing parameters were analysed for comparison. Additionally, a circular arc was fitted to the clubhead path, and the moving trihedron was introduced as a reference frame for observing the clubhead rotation. Despite differences in their body type, golfers achieved comparable clubhead speed, while the radius of the fitted circular arc was in a narrow range. The moving trihedron, together with conventional parameters of the golf swing, enabled additional insight to the clubhead motion and clubface orientation. Individual swing characteristics, which result in the clubhead motion prior to impact, could clearly be observed, enabling improvement of the golfer’s swing technique.

Physical Characteristics of Youth Elite Golfers and Their Relationship With Driver Clubhead Speed.

Coughlan, D, Taylor, M, Jackson, J, Ward, N, and Beardsley, C. Physical characteristics of youth elite golfers and their relationship with driver clubhead speed. J Strength Cond Res 34(1): 212-217, 2020-Increased clubhead speed (CHS) has a strong relationship with golf performance and is related to athletic qualities in adult golfers. Research investigating the youth golfer is limited. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationships between strength and power on CHS in youth golfers. A correlational design was used to assess relationships between CHS and anthropometric, strength, and power measurements. Thirty-six male and 33 female golfers aged 13-17 took part in this study. Male golfers showed significant relationships between CHS and handicap (HCP) (r = -0.50), seated medicine ball throw to the left (SMBTL) (r = 0.67), and right (SMBTR) (r = 0.61), rotational medicine ball throw to the left (RMBTL) (r = 0.71), and right RMBTR (r = 0.62). Female golfers showed significant relationships between CHS and HCP (r = -0.52), mass (r = 0.72), countermovement jump power (r = 0.60), RMBTL (r = 0.57), RMBTR (r = 0.56). Multiple stepwise linear regression analysis identified 77% of the variance in CHS could be explained through SMBTL and RMBTL in males. In females, 84% of the variance in CHS could be explained through mass, RMBTR, and height. This study demonstrated relationships between CHS and body mass and upper-, lower-, and full-body concentric dominant power exercises. This study could aid in the development of training interventions for youth golfers.

Balance Improvements and Golf Swing Kinematic Consistency with Eight Week Balance Intervention

The purpose of the study was to isolate the relationship between balance and swing kinematics for collegiate level male golfers. Eight National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I golfers completed an eight-week training program targeting improving balance. All golfers were assessed for postural stability and swing kinematics before and after the balance training program. Golfers completed 10 swings with a driver, and swing kinematics were measured using 3D motion capture (Qualisys AB). Postural stability results showed decreases in center-of-pressure (COP) deviation for single leg, eyes closed stance conditions were significant (p&lt;0.05). Changes in Balance Error Scores (BES) were not significant (p&gt;0.05) for any stance condition following training intervention. Range values (maximum-minimum) for club head speed (CHS), club path, and face angle stayed the same or decreased following the training intervention but were not significant (p&gt;0.05). Key positions in the golf swing, including pelvis and torso angles at the top of the swing and impact were unaffected by the balance training (p&gt;0.05). Pearson’s values indicated a low degree of correlation between postural stability and swing kinematic consistency, as measured by variance. While postural stability improved following golf specific balance training, individual swing kinematics and swing kinematics consistency were unaffected.

Effects of Golf Rehabilitation Exercise on Swing Power, Swing Speed, X-factor and Club Head Speed of Novice and Expert Golfer

Purpose: This study examined the effects of golf rehabilitation exercise on swing power, swing speed, X-factor and club head speed between novice and expert golfer. Methods: The participants were 12 novice and 12 experts. They participated in a golf rehabilitation exercise program for 6 weeks. This program consisted of 5 steps and 4 items (sleeper stretch, full side plank, push-up to plank, high plank knee unders). A three-dimensional motion analyzer was used to measure the X-factor (angle between shoulder and pelvis at top of backswing). Primus RS was used to measure the swing power and swing speed. The golf simulator was used to measure the clubhead speed. In the study, we compared the dependent variables before and after the exercise between the novice and expert. Results: Swing power, swing speed, X-factor, and clubhead speed were significantly increased after the exercise in both groups. There was no significant difference in swing power, swing speed, and X-factor between the groups, but the clubhead speed of expert golfers was significantly increased than that of the novice. Conclusion: This study exhibits that the rehabilitation exercise for golfers was effective for increasing swing power, swing speed, X-factor, and club head speed for both novice and expert golfers.

Physical Determinants of Golf Swing Performance: A Review.

Sheehan, WB, Bower, RG, and Watsford, ML. Physical determinants of golf swing performance: A review. J Strength Cond Res 36(1): 289-297, 2022-Traditionally, golf practice has primarily focused on the mental, technical, and skill aspects as the primary means to improve performance. Only recently has a greater emphasis been placed on the physical components with balance, muscular strength, power, and specific muscle-tendon properties demonstrating positive associations with club head speed and carry distance. Accordingly, this review will explore the influence of these physical components on measures of golf swing performance. Superior balance may allow players to effectively deal with the need to shift weight during the swing as well as different stance positions, whereas superior lower-body muscular strength, power, and stiffness may allow more mechanical work to be performed on the club during the swing per unit of time, consequently increasing club head speed. Alternatively, flexibility may also contribute to enhanced force production with a greater range of motion, particularly when generating the "X-factor," allowing for a longer backswing and more time to produce higher angular velocities and forces. Furthermore, training intervention studies focusing on the aforementioned components have demonstrated enhancements in swing performance. Targeting multiple muscle groups, including those implicated via electromyography activation, and utilizing multiple modalities have proven effective at increasing club head speed. However, such multifaceted programs have made it difficult to determine the mechanisms that specifically contribute to performance gains. Despite these limitations, strength, power, and musculotendinous stiffness, particularly in the lower body, seem to be stronger determinants of club head speed and carry distance than flexibility. Furthermore, acute improvements can be induced using resistance-orientated warm-ups.

Changes in angular momentum during the golf swing and their association with club head speed

ABSTRACTThis study measured changes in angular momentum during a golf swing and determined its associations with club head speed (CHS). Three-dimensional coordinates of anatomical landmarks were obtained during driver shots in 17 male collegiate golfers. A 15-segment model was used to calculate total (body-club system) angular momentum about the whole-body centre of mass and the segmental contributions of the trunk, arms, legs, and club to CHS. Angular momentum of the body-club system and the club increased from the top of the backswing towards ball impact. While angular momentum of the arms reached a maximum before the middle downswing, that of the trunk peaked after the middle downswing. The trunk maximum angular momentum was selected as the sole contributor for CHS (R2 = 0.494, p = 0.002). CHS negatively correlated with the relative difference between maximum angular momentum and angular momentum at impact only in the trunk (r = −0.492, p = 0.045). These results suggest that 1) the club head is accelerated by increasing angular momentum of the body-club system without sequential motion from the proximal (trunk) to distal (arm) segments, and 2) gaining large trunk angular momentum in the later part of the downswing is essential for fast CHS.

Differences in kinematics and driver performance in elite female and male golfers

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to compare swing kinematic differences between women and men and investigate which variables predict clubhead speed (CHS) and carry distance (CD) whilst accounting for individual variation. Methods: Swing kinematics and driver performance data were collected on 20 (10 women) elite golfers (HCP 0.7 ± 1.4). We used Bayesian T-test for between sex comparison of swing kinematics and Bayesian Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) to produce general linear models for CHS and carry distance for elite female and male golfers separately. Results: There was strong evidence that the driver performance variables CHS and CD were decreased in women compared to men, and two kinematic variables; time to arm peak speed downswing and angular wrist peak speed were slower in women. The ANCOVAs identified very strong to overwhelming evidence that participant as a fixed factor was a determinant of CHS for both women and men but was not a determinant of CD. Conclusion: when looking to enhance driver performance among high-level golfers, coaches should be aware that variables that determine CHS and CD differ among women and men and if the aim is to improve CHS coaches should not forget the importance of individual swing characteristics.

A continuous analytical shaft model for fast dynamic simulation of the golf swing

The intricate physical interaction between the golfer and golf club has driven the development of numerous dynamic golf swing models over the past few decades. Within these golf swing models, the shaft is represented analytically, and simplifications are often made to strike a balance between the demanding computation required for simulating full swings and running optimizations. Despite recent progress in modeling golfer biomechanics, there has been a marked lack of experimental validation surrounding the dynamic behaviour of the analytical shaft models used in golf swing simulations. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the simulated behaviour of an advanced, continuously-parameterized analytical golf shaft model using experimental data collected in constrained mechanical property experiments as well as golf swing motion capture experiments. In the constrained experiments, the model predicted the experimental shaft’s static deflection and bending frequency within a relative error of 1%. In simulations of full swings, the model authentically replicated the unique bending patterns for each of the 20 golfers in the motion capture experiment. The root mean square errors for the shaft droop, lag, and twist angles for all swings ($$N=200$$) were $$1.14^{\circ }$$, $$0.83^{\circ }$$, and $$0.85^{\circ }$$, respectively, and the clubhead speed at the time of impact was predicted to within $$-\,2.9$$ to 0.6%. Empowered by symbolic computation, the model is computationally efficient enough for fast simulations of full swings ($$<1$$ s CPU time) on a desktop computer, thereby enabling golf shaft design optimization.