Clouds And The Earth's Radiant Energy System Research Articles

Assessment of Sea Ice Albedo Radiative Forcing and Feedback over the Northern Hemisphere from 1982 to 2009 Using Satellite and Reanalysis Data

Abstract The decreasing surface albedo caused by continuously retreating sea ice over Arctic plays a critical role in Arctic warming amplification. However, the quantification of the change in radiative forcing at top of atmosphere (TOA) introduced by the decreasing sea ice albedo and its feedback to the climate remain uncertain. In this study, based on the satellite-retrieved long-term surface albedo product CLARA-A1 (Cloud, Albedo, and Radiation dataset, AVHRR-based, version 1) and the radiative kernel method, an estimated 0.20 ± 0.05 W m−2 sea ice radiative forcing (SIRF) has decreased in the Northern Hemisphere (NH) owing to the loss of sea ice from 1982 to 2009, yielding a sea ice albedo feedback (SIAF) of 0.25 W m−2 K−1 for the NH and 0.19 W m−2 K−1 for the entire globe. These results are lower than the estimate from another method directly using the Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) broadband planetary albedo. Further data analysis indicates that kernel method is likely to underestimate the change in all-sky SIRF because all-sky radiative kernels mask too much of the effect of sea ice albedo on the variation of cloudy albedo. By applying an adjustment with CERES-based estimate, the change in all-sky SIRF over the NH was corrected to 0.33 ± 0.09 W m−2, corresponding to a SIAF of 0.43 W m−2 K−1 for NH and 0.31 W m−2 K−1 for the entire globe. It is also determined that relative to satellite surface albedo product, two popular reanalysis products, ERA-Interim and MERRA, severely underestimate the changes in NH SIRF in melt season (May–August) from 1982 to 2009 and the sea ice albedo feedback to warming climate.

Improving the modelling of short‐wave radiation through the use of a 3D scene construction algorithm

Active satellite sensors, such as Cloud‐Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO) and CloudSat, provide cloud properties that are not available from passive sensors, such as MODerate‐resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). While active sensors provide vertical profiles of clouds, their spatial coverage is limited to their narrow, nadir ground‐track. As a result, estimation of radiation by combining active sensors and broadband instrument has limitations due to their different spatial coverages. This study uses a scene construction algorithm (SCA) and MODIS data to extend two‐dimensional (2D) nadir cloud profiles into the cross‐track direction, and examines how the resulting constructed 3D cloud fields improve simulation of solar radiative transfer. Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) radiances are used as references to assess the improvements.While use of constructed 3D cloud fields only slightly impacts mean‐bias errors for instantaneous 20 km CERES footprint‐averaged top‐of‐atmosphere (TOA) radiances, reductions in random errors are about 40%. The largest improvements in TOA radiance simulation are for clouds with small‐scale horizontal inhomogeneity such as stratocumulus and cumulus. In contrast, uniform clouds such as nimbostratus, and deep convective clouds (Dc) show little response to the SCA. The impact of using the SCA on instantaneous surface irradiances is significant for stratocumulus and cumulus, but weak for nimbostratus and Dc. Conversely, SCA significantly influences atmospheric absorption and heating rates for nimbostratus and Dc.Differences in TOA radiances simulated by 1D and 3D transfer models are smaller than differences due to use of only the 2D nadir cross‐sections and the 3D constructed fields. This is because of smoothing of 3D radiative effects when averaged up to CERES footprints. For surface irradiance and atmospheric absorption, however, differences simulated by 1D and 3D transfer models are more comparable to differences that stem from use of 2D and 3D cloud information.

Radiative effect of dust aerosols on cloud microphysics and meso-scale dynamics during monsoon breaks over Arabian sea

During monsoon breaks (large scale rainfall below the long term normal), dry air laddened with dust aerosols intrude over central India through Arabian sea (AS) from West Asian desert regions. To understand the effect of these dust aerosols on marine clouds over AS during monsoon breaks, Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO) and Cloud and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) data have been analyzed for the period 2007 to 2013. The vertical profile of dust backscatter coefficient (DBS) showed an elevated layer between 2 and 5 km and the maximum heating rate observed is 9 K/Day which is higher by 3 K/day as compared to the heating observed in June to September (JJAS) mean. Semi-direct effect due to the interaction of the long range transported dust with pristine cloud environment is observed in both warm and cold clouds. Significant differences in shortwave and longwave fluxes at the top of the atmosphere (TOA), cloud micro and macrophysical parameters are observed between the clouds with and without dust. Also, the percentage differences are more in cold clouds as compared to warm clouds. Dust induced semi-direct effect is found to be more pronounced in cold clouds, while indirect effect in warm clouds. Zonal anomalies of dynamical parameters due to dust induced heating, affect the circulation patterns in the immediate meso-scale environment, which strengthen/extend the monsoon break situation.

On the use of a satellite remote-sensing-based approach for determining aerosol direct radiative effect over land: a case study over China

Abstract. A satellite-based approach to derive the aerosol direct shortwave (SW) radiative effect (ADRE) was studied in an environment with highly variable aerosol conditions over eastern China from March to October 2009. The method is based on using coincident SW top-of-the-atmosphere (TOA) fluxes from the Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) and aerosol optical depths (AODs) from the MODerate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) to derive SW clear-sky ADRE. The estimate for the aerosol-free TOA flux (F0,TOA) is obtained by establishing linear regression between CERES SW TOA fluxes and MODIS AODs. A normalization procedure to a fixed solar zenith angle, Earth–Sun distance and atmospheric water vapor content was applied to the CERES fluxes prior to the linear fit against AOD to reduce the flux variation not related to aerosols. In the majority of the cases, the normalization increased positive correlation between observed SW TOA fluxes and AODs, and it decreased RMSE. The key question in the satellite-based approach is the accuracy of the estimated F0,TOA. Comparison with simulated F0,TOA showed that both the satellite method and the model produced qualitatively similar spatial patterns, but absolute values differed. In 58 % of the cases the satellite-based F0,TOA was within ±10 W m−2 of the modeled value (about 7–8 % difference in flux values). Over bright surfaces, the satellite-based method tend to produce lower F0,TOA than the model. The satellite-based clear-sky estimates for median instantaneous and diurnally averaged ADRE over the study area were −8.8 W m−2 and −5.1 W m−2, respectively. Over heavily industrialized areas, the cooling at TOA was 2 to more than 3 times the median value, and associated with high AODs (> 0.5). Especially during the summer months, positive ADREs were observed locally over dark surfaces. This was most probably a method artifact related to systematic change of aerosol type, sub-visual cloud contamination or both.

Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) Data Products for Climate Research

NASA's Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) project integrates CERES, Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and geostationary satellite observations to provide top-of-atmosphere (TOA) irradiances derived from broadband radiance observations by CERES instruments. It also uses snow cover and sea ice extent retrieved from microwave instruments as well as thermodynamic variables from reanalysis. In addition, these variables are used for surface and atmospheric irradiance computations. The CERES project provides TOA, surface, and atmospheric irradiances in various spatial and temporal resolutions. These data sets are for climate research and evaluation of climate models. Long-term observations are required to understand how the Earth system responds to radiative forcing. A simple model is used to estimate the time to detect trends in TOA reflected shortwave and emitted longwave irradiances.

Mean Structure and Diurnal Cycle of Southeast Atlantic Boundary Layer Clouds: Insights from Satellite Observations and Multiscale Modeling Framework Simulations

Abstract The mean structure and diurnal cycle of southeast (SE) Atlantic boundary layer clouds are described with satellite observations and multiscale modeling framework (MMF) simulations during austral spring (September–November). Hourly resolution cloud fraction (CF) and cloud-top height (HT) are retrieved from Meteosat-9 radiances using modified Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) algorithms, whereas liquid water path (LWP) is from the University of Wisconsin microwave satellite climatology. The MMF simulations use a 2D cloud-resolving model (CRM) that contains an advanced third-order turbulence closure to explicitly simulate cloud physical processes in every grid column of a general circulation model. The model accurately reproduces the marine stratocumulus spatial extent and cloud cover. The mean cloud cover spatial variability in the model is primarily explained by the boundary layer decoupling strength, whereas a boundary layer shoaling accounts for a coastal decrease in CF. Moreover, the core of the stratocumulus cloud deck is concomitant with the location of the strongest temperature inversion. Although the model reproduces the observed westward boundary layer deepening and the spatial variability of LWP, it overestimates LWP by 50%. Diurnal cycles of HT, CF, and LWP from satellites and the model have the same phase, with maxima during the early morning and minima near 1500 local solar time, which suggests that the diurnal cycle is driven primarily by solar heating. Comparisons with the SE Pacific cloud deck indicate that the observed amplitude of the diurnal cycle is modest over the SE Atlantic, with a shallower boundary layer as well. The model qualitatively reproduces these interregime differences.

Effect of terrestrial radiation on brightness temperature at lunar nearside: Based on theoretical calculation and data analysis

Terrestrial radiation is another possible source of heat in lunar thermal environment at its nearside besides the solar illumination. On the basis of Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) data products, the effect of terrestrial radiation on the brightness temperature (TBe) of the lunar nearside has been theoretically calculated. It shows that the mafic lunar mare with high TBe is more sensitive to terrestrial radiation than the feldspathic highland with low TBe value. According to the synchronous rotation of the Moon, we extract TBe on lunar nearside using the microwave radiometer data from the first Chinese lunar probe Chang’E-1 (CE-1). Consistently, the average TBe at Mare Serenitatis is about 1.2K while the highland around the Geber crater (19.4°S,13.9°E) is relatively small at ∼0.4K. Our results indicate that there is no significant effect of terrestrial radiation on TBe at the lunar nearside. However, to extract TBe accurately, effects of heat flow, rock abundance and subsurface rock fragments which are more significant should be considered in the future work.

Systematic satellite observations of the impact of aerosols from passive volcanic degassing on local cloud properties

Abstract. The impact of volcanic emissions, especially from passive degassing and minor explosions, is a source of uncertainty in estimations of aerosol indirect effects. Observations of the impact of volcanic aerosol on clouds contribute to our understanding of both present-day atmospheric properties and of the pre-industrial baseline necessary to assess aerosol radiative forcing. We present systematic measurements over several years at multiple active and inactive volcanic islands in regions of low present-day aerosol burden. The time-averaged indirect aerosol effects within 200 km downwind of island volcanoes are observed using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS, 2002–2013) and Advanced Along-Track Scanning Radiometer (AATSR, 2002–2008) data. Retrievals of aerosol and cloud properties at Kīlauea (Hawai'i), Yasur (Vanuatu) and Piton de la Fournaise (la Réunion) are rotated about the volcanic vent to be parallel to wind direction, so that upwind and downwind retrievals can be compared. The emissions from all three volcanoes – including those from passive degassing, Strombolian activity and minor explosions – lead to measurably increased aerosol optical depth downwind of the active vent. Average cloud droplet effective radius is lower downwind of the volcano in all cases, with the peak difference ranging from 2–8 μm at the different volcanoes in different seasons. Estimations of the difference in Top of Atmosphere upward Short Wave flux upwind and downwind of the active volcanoes from NASA's Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) suggest a downwind elevation of between 10 and 45 Wm−2 at distances of 150–400 km from the volcano, with much greater local (< 80 km) effects. Comparison of these observations with cloud properties at isolated islands without degassing or erupting volcanoes suggests that these patterns are not purely orographic in origin. Our observations of unpolluted, isolated marine settings may capture processes similar to those in the pre-industrial marine atmosphere.

Boundary layer regulation in the southeast Atlantic cloud microphysics during the biomass burning season as seen by the A‐train satellite constellation

AbstractSolar radiation absorption by biomass burning aerosols has a strong warming effect over the southeast Atlantic. Interactions between the overlying smoke aerosols and low‐level cloud microphysics and the subsequent albedo perturbation are, however, generally ignored in biomass burning radiative assessments. In this study, Cloud‐Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO) are combined with Aqua satellite observations from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer–EOS (AMSR‐E), and Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) to assess the effect of variations in the boundary layer height and the separation distance between the cloud and aerosol layers on the cloud microphysics. The merged data analyzed at a daily temporal resolution suggest that overlying smoke aerosols modify cloud properties by decreasing cloud droplet size despite an increase in the cloud liquid water as boundary layer deepens, north of 5°S. These changes are controlled by the proximity of the aerosol layer to the cloud top rather than increases in the column aerosol load. The correlations are unlikely driven by meteorological factors, as three predictors of cloud variability, lower tropospheric stability, surface winds, and mixing ratio suggest that cloud effective radius, cloud top height, and liquid water path should correlate positively. Because cloud effective radius anticorrelates with cloud liquid water over the region with large microphysical changes—north of 5°S—the overall radiative consequence at the top of the atmosphere is a strong albedo susceptibility, equivalent to a 3% albedo increase due to a 10% decrease in cloud effective radius. This albedo enhancement partially offsets the aerosol solar absorption. Our analysis emphasizes the importance of accounting for the indirect effect of smoke aerosols in the cloud microphysics when estimating the radiative impact of the biomass burning at the top of the atmosphere.

A Global Climatology of Outgoing Longwave Spectral Cloud Radiative Effect and Associated Effective Cloud Properties

Abstract Longwave (LW) spectral flux and cloud radiative effect (CRE) are important for understanding the earth’s radiation budget and cloud–radiation interaction. Here, the authors extend their previous algorithms to collocated Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) and Cloud and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) observations over the entire globe and show that the algorithms yield consistently good performances for measurements over both land and ocean. As a result, the authors are able to derive spectral flux and CRE at 10-cm−1 intervals over the entire LW spectrum from all currently available collocated AIRS and CERES observations. Using this multiyear dataset, they delineate the climatology of spectral CRE, including the far IR, over the entire globe as well as in different climate zones. Furthermore, the authors define two quantities, IR-effective cloud-top height (CTHeff) and cloud amount (CAeff), based on the monthly-mean spectral (or band by band) CRE. Comparisons with cloud fields retrieved by the CERES–Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) algorithm indicate that, under many circumstances, the CTHeff and CAeff can be related to the physical retrievals of CTH and CA and thus can enhance understandings of model deficiencies in LW radiation budgets and cloud fields. Using simulations from the GFDL global atmosphere model, version 2 (AM2); NASA’s Goddard Earth Observing System, version 5 (GEOS-5); and Environment Canada’s Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis (CCCma) Fourth Generation Canadian Atmospheric General Circulation Model (CanAM4) as case studies, the authors further demonstrate the merits of the CTHeff and CAeff concepts in providing insights on global climate model evaluations that cannot be obtained solely from broadband LW flux and CRE comparisons.

Computation of Radiation Budget on an Oblate Earth

Abstract The effects of the earth’s oblateness on computation of its radiation budget from satellite measurements are evaluated. For the Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) data processing, geolocations of the measurements are computed in terms of the geodetic coordinate system. Using this system accounts for oblateness in the computed solar zenith angle and length of day. The geodetic and geocentric latitudes are equal at the equator and poles but differ by a maximum of 0.2° at 45° latitude. The area of each region and zone is affected by oblateness as compared to geocentric coordinates, decreasing from zero at the equator to 1.5% at the poles. The global area receiving solar radiation is calculated using the equatorial and polar axes. This area varies with solar declination by 0.0005. For radiation budget computations, the earth oblateness effects are shown to be small compared to error sources of measuring or modeling.

Variability of Regional TOA Flux Diurnal Cycle Composites at the Monthly Time Scale

Abstract Diurnal variability is a fundamental component of Earth’s climate system. Clouds, temperature, and precipitation exhibit robust responses to the daily cycle of solar insolation. Recent work indicates significant variability in the top-of-the-atmosphere (TOA) flux diurnal cycle in the tropics associated with monthly changes in the cloud diurnal cycle evolution. It has been proposed that the observed month-to-month variations in the TOA flux diurnal cycle are caused by anomalies in the atmospheric dynamic and thermodynamic state. This hypothesis is tested using a regression analysis to quantify the relationship between diurnal cycle shape and the atmospheric dynamic and thermodynamic state. TOA radiative fluxes are obtained from Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) Edition 3 data and the atmospheric dynamic and thermodynamic state is taken from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) Interim Re-Analysis. Four regions representing traditional diurnal cycle regimes are used in this analysis: North Africa (land nonconvective), central South America (land convective), Peru marine stratocumulus (ocean nonconvective), and Indian Ocean (ocean convective). The results show a statistically significant diurnal cycle shape change and cloud response related to monthly atmospheric state anomalies. Using the single-variable regression relationships to predict monthly diurnal cycle variability shows improvements of 1%–18% over assuming a climatological diurnal cycle shape; the most significant gains are found in North Africa. The proposed hypothesis, therefore, contributes to diurnal cycle variability explaining at least 10%–20% of the total monthly-mean diurnal cycle variability.

Comparison of marine boundary layer cloud properties from CERES‐MODIS Edition 4 and DOE ARM AMF measurements at the Azores

AbstractMarine boundary layer (MBL) cloud properties derived from the NASA Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) project using Terra and Aqua Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data are compared with observations taken at the Department of Energy Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Mobile Facility at the Azores (AMF‐Azores) site from June 2009 through December 2010. Cloud properties derived from ARM ground‐based observations were averaged over a 1 h interval centered at the satellite overpass time, while the CERES‐MODIS (CM) results were averaged within a 30 km × 30 km grid box centered over the Azores site. A total of 63 daytime and 92 nighttime single‐layered overcast MBL cloud cases were selected from 19 months of ARM radar‐lidar and satellite observations. The CM cloud top/base heights (Htop/Hbase) were determined from cloud top/base temperatures (Ttop/Tbase) using a regional boundary layer lapse rate method. For daytime comparisons, the CM‐derived Htop (Hbase), on average, is 0.063 km (0.068 km) higher (lower) than its ARM radar‐lidar‐observed counterpart, and the CM‐derived Ttop and Tbase are 0.9 K less and 2.5 K greater than the surface values with high correlations (R2 = 0.82 and 0.84, respectively). In general, the cloud top comparisons agree better than the cloud base comparisons, because the CM cloud base temperatures and heights are secondary products determined from cloud top temperatures and heights. No significant day‐night difference was found in the analyses. The comparisons of MBL cloud microphysical properties reveal that when averaged over a 30 km × 30 km area, the CM‐retrieved cloud droplet effective radius (re) at 3.7 µm is 1.3 µm larger than that from the ARM retrievals (12.8 µm), while the CM‐retrieved cloud liquid water path (LWP) is 13.5 gm−2 less than its ARM counterpart (114.2 gm−2) due to its small optical depth (9.6 versus 13.7). The differences are reduced by 50% when the CM averages are computed only using the MODIS pixel nearest the AMF site. Using the effective radius retrieved using 2.1 µm channel to calculate LWP can reduce the difference between the CM and ARM microwave radiometer retrievals from −13.7 to 2.1 gm−2. The 10% differences between the ARM and CERES‐MODIS LWP and re retrievals are within the uncertainties of the ARM LWP (~20 gm−2) and re (~10%) retrievals; however, the 30% difference in optical depth is significant. Possible reasons contributing to this discrepancy are increased sensitivities in optical depth from both surface retrievals when τ~10 and topography. The τ differences vary with wind direction and are consistent with the island orography. Much better agreement in τ is obtained when using only those data taken when the wind is from the northeast, where topographical effects on the sampled clouds are minimal.

The relationship of surface air temperature, heat balance at the surface, and radiative balance at the top of atmosphere over the Asian territory of Russia using reanalysis and remote-sensing data

In this study over the Asian territory of Russia (ATR) (45° N–80° N, 60° E–180° E) for the period of 1979–2010 the temporal variability of the surface air temperature field was investigated. There are several climatic factors which can influence temperature variability including radiative balance at the top of atmosphere (TOA), heat balance at the surface, total cloud cover, and large-scale atmospheric circulation in the Northern Hemisphere. The contribution of these factors to temperature variability is also investigated. It was found that during the past decade, over the ATR, the process of warming prevails mainly in the warm season, but in the cold season it is either not as marked or there is cooling instead. In the winter season there is a positive relationship between temperature anomalies and anomalies in cloudiness, effective radiation, and the Arctic Oscillation (AO) index. During the same period, a negative relationship between anomalies of temperature and anomalies of net radiation at the TOA, net shortwave radiation at the surface, and the Scandinavian (SCAND) index was observed. In the summer season, the relationship between temperature and cloudiness becomes negative and the relationship between temperature and atmospheric circulation indices decreases. For the period 2001–2010, radiative fluxes obtained from reanalysis data sets Japanese Reanalysis Data (JRA-25) and Modern Era-Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA) were compared to satellite remotely sensed data project Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES). It was found that there is a good agreement between estimates of the net radiation at the TOA calculated using reanalysis data and satellite data: the difference is about 1.5 W m−2 and the correlation coefficient is more than 0.7. As for the comparison of radiative fluxes estimates at the surface for clear sky, there is less difference between MERRA and CERES. So, during the period 2001–2010 the relation between atmospheric circulation and surface air temperature variability increased in winter months. Obtained regression models allow us to describe from 27% to 82% of temperature variability in different months if we take into account both circulation and radiative factors.

Clear sky direct radiative effects of aerosols over Southeast Asia based on satellite observations and radiative transfer calculations

Using the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) instrument, and a radiative transfer model (RTM), we provide a quantitative assessment of regional cloud-free diurnally averaged shortwave Aerosol Radiative Effects (AREs) at the top of atmosphere (TOA) and at the surface over Southeast Asia (SEAS, 10°S–20N and 90°E–130°E). The spatial and temporal variations of the annual ARE are calculated based on satellite and ground-based measurements, supplemented by radiative transfer simulations. During 2001–2010, our results indicate that the TOA diurnally averaged ARE is −5.6±0.8Wm−2 over land and −4.8±0.7Wm−2 over ocean, respectively. In contrast, the surface ARE is −13.8±3.2Wm−2 based on radiative transfer calculations. For aerosol layers of 2km in height with midvisible optical depth of 1.41 and single scattering albedo of 0.91, the shortwave radiative heating can exceed 0.8K/day. Our results indicate significant inter-annual variability of aerosol radiative properties, which is extremely large over major emission outflow regions like SEAS. This study suggests that an integrated system of satellite data, model calculations coupled with ground-based and meteorological data sets is needed to assess Aerosol Radiative Effects on regional earth-atmosphere energy budgets.

Evaluation of the Tropical TOA Flux Diurnal Cycle in MERRA and ERA-Interim Retrospective Analyses

Reanalysis model output is extensively used in atmospheric research and must be rigorously and continuously evaluated to understand the strengths and weaknesses. This paper evaluates the tropical top-of-atmosphere (TOA) flux diurnal cycle in NASA’s Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications (MERRA) and the ECMWF Interim Re-Analysis (ERA-Interim) against Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) synoptic edition 3A (SYN Ed3A) TOA flux data. MERRA and ERA-Interim are able to reproduce large-scale features of the diurnal cycle, including land–ocean contrast. MERRA and ERA-Interim, however, fail to reproduce many regional features of the climatological annual diurnal cycle. The TOA flux diurnal cycle errors in regions dominated by convective diurnal cycles are 5–10 times larger than in nonconvective regions. These errors in the TOA radiative flux diurnal cycle are primarily attributed to errors in the cloud diurnal evolution and specifically the failure to reproduce diurnally forced propagating convection. The largest diurnal cycle errors are found in ocean convective regions (e.g., Indian and equatorial Pacific Oceans); the observed longwave cloud forcing (LWCF) diurnal evolution in several oceanic convective regions shows two peaks: an afternoon and a near midnight peak; however, the reanalysis models produce a single midnight peak. The outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) diurnal cycle over tropical land is 20%–30% too weak in both reanalyses. The small diurnal cycle errors in marine stratocumulus regions are a result of two common misrepresentations in MERRA and ERA-Interim: 1) the dissipation of marine stratocumulus clouds from morning to afternoon is too slow and 2) the cloud diurnal cycle is too weak. Overall, the intermodel differences in the representation of the TOA flux diurnal cycle are smaller than the differences between reanalysis models and observations.

Evaluation of broadband surface solar irradiance derived from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument

Surface solar irradiance (SSI) data are important for planning and estimating the production of solar power plants. Long-term high quality surface solar radiation data are needed for monitoring climate change. This paper presents a new surface solar irradiance dataset, the broadband (0.2–4μm) surface solar irradiance product derived from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI). The OMI SSI algorithm is based on the Heliosat method and uses the OMI O2–O2 cloud product as main input. The OMI SSI data are validated against the globally distributed Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN) measurements at 19 stations for the year 2008. Furthermore, the monthly mean OMI SSI data are compared to independent surface solar irradiance products from International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Flux Data (ISCCP-FD) and Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) data for the year 2005. The mean difference between OMI SSI and BSRN global (direct+diffuse) irradiances is −1.2Wm−2 (−0.2%), the root mean square error is 100.1Wm−2 (18.1%), and the mean absolute error is 67.8Wm−2 (12.2%). The differences between OMI SSI and BSRN global irradiances are smaller over continental and coastal sites and larger over deserts and islands. OMI SSI has a good agreement with the CERES shortwave (SW) model B surface downward flux (SDF) product. The correlation coefficient and index of agreement between monthly mean 1-degree gridded OMI SSI and CERES SW SDF are >0.99. OMI SSI is lower than CERES SW SDF which is partly due to the solar zenith angle. On average, OMI SSI is 13.5Wm−2 (2.5%) lower than the ISCCP-FD SW surface downward flux and the correlation coefficient and index of agreement are >0.98 for every month.

A Comparison of Climate Signal Trend Detection Uncertainty Analysis Methods

Abstract Two climate signal trend analysis methods are the focus of this paper. The uncertainty of trend estimate from these two methods is investigated using Monte Carlo simulation. Several theoretically and randomly generated series of white noise, first-order autoregressive and second-order autoregressive, are explored. The choice of method that is most appropriate for the time series of interest depends upon the autocorrelation structure of the series. If the structure has its autocorrelation coefficients decreased with increasing lags (i.e., an exponential decay pattern), then the method of Weatherhead et al. is adequate. If the structure exhibits a decreasing sinusoid pattern of coefficient with lags (or a damped sinusoid pattern) or a mixture of both exponential decay and damped sinusoid patterns, then the method of Leroy et al. is recommended. The two methods are then applied to the time series of monthly and globally averaged top-of-the-atmosphere (TOA) irradiances for the reflected solar shortwave and emitted longwave regions, using radiance observations made by Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) instruments during March 2000 through June 2011. Examination of the autocorrelation structures indicates that the reflected shortwave region has an exponential decay pattern, while the longwave region has a mixture of exponential decay and damped sinusoid patterns. Therefore, it is recommended that the method of Weatherhead et al. is used for the series of reflected shortwave irradiances and that the method of Leroy et al. is used for the series of emitted longwave irradiances.

Unfiltering Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) Scanner Radiances Using the CERES Algorithm and Its Evaluation with Nonscanner Observations

Abstract The NOAA-9 Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) scanner measured broadband shortwave, longwave, and total radiances from February 1985 through January 1987. These scanner radiances are reprocessed using the more recent Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) unfiltering algorithm. The scene information, including cloud properties, required for reprocessing is derived using Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) data on board NOAA-9, while no imager data were used in the original ERBE unfiltering. The reprocessing increases the NOAA-9 ERBE scanner unfiltered longwave radiances by 1.4%–2.0% during daytime and 0.2%–0.3% during nighttime relative to those derived from the ERBE unfiltering algorithm. Similarly, the scanner unfiltered shortwave radiances increase by ~1% for clear ocean and land and decrease for all-sky ocean, land, and snow/ice by ~1%. The resulting NOAA-9 ERBE scanner unfiltered radiances are then compared with NOAA-9 nonscanner irradiances by integrating the ERBE scanner radiance over the nonscanner field of view. The comparison indicates that the integrated scanner radiances are larger by 0.9% for shortwave and 0.7% smaller for longwave. A sensitivity study shows that the one-standard-deviation uncertainties in the agreement are ±2.5%, ±1.2%, and ±1.8% for the shortwave, nighttime longwave, and daytime longwave irradiances, respectively. The NOAA-9 and ERBS nonscanner irradiances are also compared using 2 years of data. The comparison indicates that the NOAA-9 nonscanner shortwave, nighttime longwave, and daytime longwave irradiances are 0.3% larger, 0.6% smaller, and 0.4% larger, respectively. The longer observational record provided by the ERBS nonscanner plays a critical role in tying the CERES-like NOAA-9 ERBE scanner dataset from the mid-1980s to the present-day CERES scanner data record.

Regional Apparent Boundary Layer Lapse Rates Determined from CALIPSO and MODIS Data for Cloud-Height Determination

AbstractReliably determining low-cloud heights using a cloud-top temperature from satellite infrared imagery is often challenging because of difficulties in characterizing the local thermal structure of the lower troposphere with the necessary precision and accuracy. To improve low-cloud-top height estimates over water surfaces, various methods have employed lapse rates anchored to the sea surface temperature to replace the boundary layer temperature profiles that relate temperature to altitude. To further improve low-cloud-top height retrievals, collocated Cloud–Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations (CALIPSO) and Aqua Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data taken from July 2006 to June 2007 and from June 2009 to May 2010 (2 yr) for single-layer low clouds are used here with numerical weather model analyses to develop regional mean boundary apparent lapse rates. These parameters are designated as apparent lapse rates because they are defined using the cloud-top temperatures from satellite retrievals and surface skin temperatures; they do not represent true lapse rates. Separate day and night, seasonal mean lapse rates are determined for 10′-resolution snow-free land, water, and coastal regions, while zonally dependent lapse rates are developed for snow/ice-covered areas for use in the Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) Edition 4 cloud property retrieval system (CCPRS-4). The derived apparent lapse rates over ice-free water range from 5 to 9 K km−1 with mean values of about 6.9 and 7.2 K km−1 during the day and night, respectively. Over land, the regional values vary from 3 to 8 K km−1, with day and night means of 5.5 and 6.2 K km−1, respectively. The zonal-mean apparent lapse rates over snow and ice surfaces generally decrease with increasing latitude, ranging from 4 to 8 K km−1. All of the CCPRS-4 lapse rates were used along with five other lapse rate techniques to retrieve cloud-top heights for 2 months of independent Aqua MODIS data. When compared with coincident CALIPSO data for October 2007, the mean cloud-top height differences between CCPRS-4 and CALIPSO during the daytime (nighttime) are 0.04 ± 0.61 km (0.10 ± 0.62 km) over ice-free water, −0.06 ± 0.85 km (−0.01 ± 0.83 km) over snow-free land, and 0.38 ± 0.95 km (0.03 ± 0.92 km) over snow-covered areas. The CCPRS-4 regional monthly means are generally unbiased and lack spatial error gradients seen in the comparisons for most of the other techniques. Over snow-free land, the regional monthly-mean errors range from −0.28 ± 0.74 km during daytime to 0.04 ± 0.78 km at night. The water regional monthly means are, on average, 0.04 ± 0.44 km less than the CALIPSO values during day and night. Greater errors are realized for snow-covered regions. Overall, the CCPRS-4 lapse rates yield the smallest RMS differences for all times of day over all areas both for individual retrievals and monthly means. These new regional apparent lapse rates, used in processing CERES Edition 4 data, should provide more accurate low-cloud-type heights than previously possible using satellite imager data.