Cloud-to-ground Flash Rate Research Articles

Intraregional Comparisons of the Near‐Storm Environments of Storms Dominated by Frequent Positive Versus Negative Cloud‐to‐Ground Flashes

AbstractWe gridded 11 years of cloud‐to‐ground (CG) flashes detected by the U.S. National Lightning Detection Network during the warm season in 15 km × 15 km × 15 min grid cells to identify storms with substantial CG flash rates clearly dominated by flashes lowering one polarity of charge to the ground or the other (+CG flashes vs. −CG flashes). Previous studies in the central United States had found that the gross charge distribution of storms dominated by +CG flashes included a large upper negative charge over a large middle level positive charge, a reversal of the usual polarities. In each of seven regions spanning the contiguous United States (CONUS), we compared 17 environmental parameters of storms dominated by +CG flashes with those of storms dominated by –CG flashes. These parameters were chosen based on their expected roles in modulating supercooled liquid water content (SLWC) in the updraft because laboratory experiments have shown that SLWC affects the polarity of charge exchanged during rebounding collisions between riming graupel and small ice particles in the mixed phase region. This, in turn, would affect the vertical polarity of a storm's charge distribution and the dominant polarity of CG flashes. Our results suggest that the combination of parameters conducive to dominant +CG flash activity and, by inference, to anomalous storm charge structure varies widely from region to region, the lack of a favorable value of any particular parameter in a given region being offset by favorable values of one or more other parameters.

Characterisation of thunderstorms that caused lightning-ignited wildfires

This work studies the characteristics of thunderstorms that cause lightning-caused wildfires in Catalonia, north-east Iberian Peninsula, using lightning and weather radar data. Although thunderstorms produce ~57 000 cloud-to-ground (CG) flashes yearly in Catalonia, only 1 in 1000 end up as a flaming wildfire. Characterisation of thunderstorms that ignite wildland fires can help fire weather forecasters identify regions of increased ignition potential. Lightning data and radar products like maximum reflectivity, echo tops heights and equivalent liquid content were obtained over a 7-year period. Characteristics of thunderstorms that ignite wildfires are examined including storm motion, duration, morphology and intensity. It was found that most probable ignition candidates are lightning associated with cellular thunderstorms and non-linear systems. Radar reflectivity values for lightning that ignites wildfires were found to be below average, these morphological types favouring the occurrence of lightning outside regions of high reflectivity, where precipitation reaching the ground is low or non-existent. Thunderstorms that ignite wildfires are typically of low intensity, with a CG flash rate below average. Most ignitions occur during the maturity phase when the CG flash rate is the highest. A better scientific understanding of the thunderstorms that cause lightning wildfires will help improve early firefighting response.

Lightning and Storm Type in Central Alabama

This study assessed the relationship between cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning and storm type on high-lightning days in Central Alabama during 2007 – 2011 with an emphasis on identifying which types of storms produce the most lightning. Five variables were used to classify high-lightning thunderstorms into 4 types. The storm types include: 1) spring linear events with high CG flash rates; 2) summer airmass events with a high percentage of area above 40 dBZ; 3) spring weak events representing several thunderstorm modes and; 4) summer Mesoscale Convective Systems with high flash rates and the highest percentage of areas above 40 dBZ. This research has the potential to aid forecasters in decision making by associating lightning potential with storm type characteristics observed on days with frequent lightning.

Relationship between thunderstorm electrification and storm kinetics revealed by phased array weather radar

AbstractWe examine 3‐D lightning location data and radar data obtained through multiple radar observation stations, including two X‐band phased array weather radars (PAWRs), in order to understand the relationship between thunderstorm electrification and storm kinetics. In an investigated convective cell, both intracloud (IC) and cloud‐to‐ground (CG) flash rates drastically change within 25 min. First, the IC flash rate shows a steep increase with a peak at 10 min−1, and then, the CG flash rate peaks 7 min afterward. During the increase phase of the IC flash rate, the radar observation indicates that the echo top height and updraft echo volume in the upper level increase. The upper positive charge regions removed by IC flashes are located in or near the updraft region at high altitudes. On the contrary, the IC flash rate decreases when the updraft at high altitudes weakens. The IC flash rate is well correlated with a proxy for updraft volume in 1 min interval comparison. These results indicate that the IC flash rate has a strong connection with updraft at high altitudes. The CG flash rate peaks when precipitation particles, probably involving graupel, from high altitudes arrive at approximately the −10°C isotherm level. We speculate that graupel from high altitudes might contribute to the initiations of CG flashes. We show an abrupt ascent of the upper positive charge region involved in IC flashes. PAWR observation results indicate that the updraft might have contributed to the ascent of the upper positive lightning charge region.

Relationship between lightning activity and vertical airflow characteristics in thunderstorms

Cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning data, wind field data derived from dual-Doppler radars, and radar reflectivity data are combined to investigate the relationships between CG lightning and the parameters associated with vertical airflow. A new method for the identification of thunderstorm cells based on the aggregation of flashes is developed. It is found that approximately 79.1% of CG flashes are located in the region featuring weak vertical velocity at the 0°C level, ranging from −5 to 5ms−1, with the majority in the weak updraft region, especially for negative CG lightning and the CG lightning in the initial stage of thunderstorms. The CG lightning rate is correlated with the volume of updraft for vertical velocities within certain limits. The sum of absolute precipitation ice mass flux in the region from 7 to 11km is more significantly correlated with the CG flash rate, with correlation coefficients of 0.73, 0.71, and 0.74 for the initial, mature, and dissipating stages of thunderstorms, respectively. On average, the updraft in the thunderstorm at the stage when the last CG flash occurs accounts for a much smaller ratio to the whole volume of the thunderstorm than that corresponding to the first CG flash. The maximum updraft and maximum height of the 10 and 20ms−1 updraft speeds are close for the first and last CG flashes, indicating the dependence of the lightning on strength of updraft. It is deduced that layered large-range charges may be more conducive to the generation of CG flashes than charge pockets in the thunderstorm.

Relationships between cloud-to-ground flashes and hydrometeors in a thunderstorm in Fujian province

A local severe thunderstorm, occurring near the coastal region in Fujian province, China, was chosen to study the relationships between hydrometeors and cloud-to-ground (CG) flash activities. This thunderstorm case study was carried out by using vehicle-mounted X-band dual-polarization radar on August 28, 2009. On the basis of polarimetric parameters, the hydrometeors were identified by fuzzy logic hydrometeor classification (FLHC). The results show that the thunderstorm grew into a squall line with a maximum flash rate of 85fl/5min in mature stage. Negative CG constituted approximately 97.3% of total CG flashes. More than 90% of the CG flashes occurred in the convective regions, and less than 10% occurred in the stratiform region. The strong echo volume in convective region had a positive linear correlation with the CG flashes rate. Seven types of hydrometeors, namely, rain (RN), aggregates (AG), low-density graupel (LDG), high-density graupel (HDG), vertically aligned ice crystals (VI), drizzle-light rain (DR), and ice crystals (IC), have been classified; the first five of the hydrometeors are predominant in the thunderstorm. RN is located mainly in regions warmer than 0°C; the HDG is located in the middle and lower regions colder than 0°C; and LDG and VI mainly appear in the upper portion of the thunderstorm. The ice hydrometeors seemly had a close relation with CG flashes because the total CG flash rates had a strong positive correlation with the grid number of AG, LDG, HDG, and VI in the convective region. However, the sufficient ice hydrometeors did not produce frequent CG flashes in the stratiform region. It suggests that the dynamic structure is also very important for triggering lightning flashes.

Characteristics of cloud-to-ground lightning activity in hailstorms over Yunnan province

The characteristics of cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning for nine hailstorms in Yunnan province of China are analyzed statistically. It is determined that the hailstorms were found to present dominant negative CG lightning flashes at any given stage. One specific hailstorm occurring on July 16, 2006, is analyzed in detail by using the data from a CG lightning location network and Doppler radar. This severe hailstorm, which exhibited strong vertical development with cloud tops reaching 15.9km, produced hailstones as large as 15mm and had a lifespan of 3h and 12min. The total CG lightning within the hailstorm showed high levels of activity with flash rates of up to 79fl/5min. The analysis of the storm cell’s lifecycle shows similar trends between the CG lightning flash rates and radar-derived parameters. Cloud-to-ground flashes tended to initiate within the cloud region with reflectivity of more than 30 dBZ at the −10°C isotherm height. A distinct increase in CG flash rate is shown during the rapid development stages of hailstorms. The CG lightning jump pattern appears to be an effective tool for short-term forecasting of possible occurrences of severe weather.

A 10-Year Study on the Characteristics of Thunderstorms in Belgium Based on Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Data

Abstract Temporal and spatial distributions of cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning in Belgium are analyzed. Based on data from the European Cooperation for Lightning Detection (EUCLID) network, spanning a period of 10 years between 2004 and 2013, mean CG flash densities vary between 0.3 km−2 yr−1 in the west up to 2.4 km−2 yr−1 toward the east of Belgium, with an average flash density of 0.7 km−2 yr−1. The same behavior is found in terms of thunderstorm days and hours, where in the east most of the activity is observed, with a drop-off toward the coast. The majority of lightning activity takes place in the summer months between May and August, accounting for nearly 90% of the total activity. Furthermore, the thunderstorm season reaches its highest activity in July in terms of CG detections, while the diurnal cycle peaks between 1500 and 1600 UTC. A correlation is found between the estimated peak currents and altitude, with on average higher absolute peak currents at lower elevations and vice versa. In addition, a cell tracking algorithm is applied to the data to monitor the behavior of the individual cells. It is found that the lightning cells travel at an average speed of about 25 km h−1, with a preferred northeasterly direction of movement. At last, CG flash rates are strongly related to the cell area.

The Relationship between Total Cloud Lightning Behavior and Radar-Derived Thunderstorm Structure

Abstract Total lightning detection systems have been in development since the mid-1980s and deployed in several areas around the world. Previous studies on total lightning found intra- and intercloud lightning (IC) activity tends to fluctuate significantly during the lifetime of thunderstorms and have indicated that lightning jumps or rapid changes in lightning flash rates are closely linked to changes in the vertical integrated liquid (VIL) reading on the National Weather Service’s Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) systems. This study examines the total lightning and its relationship to WSR-88D signatures used operationally to determine thunderstorm severity to highlight the potential benefit of a combined forecast approach. Lightning and thunderstorm data from the Dallas–Fort Worth, Texas, and Tucson, Arizona, areas from 2006 to 2009, were used to relate total lightning behavior and radar interrogation techniques. The results indicate that lightning jumps can be classified into severe wind, hail, or mixed-type jumps based on the behavior of various radar-based parameters. In 25 of 34 hail-type jumps and in 18 of 20 wind-type jumps, a characteristic change in cloud-to-ground (CG) versus IC lightning flash rates occurred prior to the report of severe weather. For hail-type jumps, IC flash rates increased, while CG flash rates were steady or decreased. For wind-type jumps, CG flash rates increased, while IC flash rates either increased (12 of 18) or were steady or decreased (6 of 18). Although not every lightning jump resulted in a severe weather report, the characteristic behavior in flash rates adds information to radar-based approaches for nowcasting the severe weather type.

Analysis of Lightning Characteristics in a Thunderstorm with Gust

One severe thunderstorm with damaging straight-line wind occurred on 21 June 2005 in north Shandong Province. Based on the analysis of lightning activities, radar echo and cloud image, it was found that the cloud-to-ground (CG) flash rates increased rapidly at the initial stage, and kept in a high level (about above 20 fl/5min) during the whole mature stage. At the dissipating stage, positive CG flashes gradually became dominant. For the advent of the peak value, the hourly flash rate lagged behind the minimum brightness temperature, and the area of cold cloud shield with temperature <−50°C lagged behind the hourly flash rate. The pulse of CG flash rate was slightly ahead of the occurrence of severe surface wind. Downburst caused the damaging wind with the maximum measured value of wind speed approximately the same to the maximum potential speed calculated by WINDEX.

Analysis of thunderstorm and lightning activity associated with sprites observed during the EuroSprite campaigns: Two case studies

During the summers of 2003 to 2006 sprites were observed over thunderstorms in France by cameras on mountain tops in Southern France. The observations were part of a larger coordinated effort, the EuroSprite campaigns, with data collected simultaneously from other sources including the French radar network for precipitation structure, Meteosat with images of cloud top temperature and the Météorage network for detection of cloud-to-ground (CG) flash activity. In this paper two storms are analyzed, each producing 27 sprite events. Both storms were identified as Mesoscale Convective Systems (MCS) with a trailing stratiform configuration (ST) and reaching a maximum cloud area of ~ 120,000 km 2. Most of the sprites were produced while the stratiform area was clearly developed and during periods of substantial increase of rainfall in regions with radar reflectivity between 30 and 40 dBZ. The sprite-producing periods followed a maximum in the CG lightning activity and were characterized by a low CG flash rate with a high proportion of + CG flashes, typically around 50%. All sprites were associated with + CGs except one which was observed after a − CG as detected by the Météorage network. This − CG was estimated to have − 800 C km charge moment change. The peak current of sprite-producing + CG (SP + CG) flashes was twice the average value of + CGs and close to 60 kA with little variation between the periods of sprite activity. The SP + CG flashes were further characterized by short time intervals before a subsequent CG flash (median value < 0.5 s) and with clusters of several CG flashes which suggest that SP + CG flashes often are part of multi-CG flash processes. One case of a lightning process associated with a sprite consisted of 7 CG flashes.

Characterization of warm season convective systems over US in terms of Cloud to Ground lightning, cloud kinematics, and precipitation

Convective systems are tracked for two summer months over the continental USA and their properties at different stages of life are investigated in terms of Cloud to Ground (CG) lightning flashes, cloud kinematics, and precipitation. The study employs lightning data from the National Lightning Detection Network (NLDN) along with 1/2-hourly satellite Infrared observations, and hourly rainfall accumulation fields from the nationwide WSR-88D radar network. Results show strong dependence of the amount of CG lightning flashes with the stage of the storm's life cycle. The highest number of CG lightning flashes and highest area expansion rates are also seen to be during the growth stage of the systems. The stronger the lightning density, or cloud top area expansion rate, of the storms at their initiation stage is the longer is shown to be their life duration. The average rainfall yield per flash in the growing, mature and dissipation stages of storms with duration greater than 4 h is 4.7, 12.5 and 8.5 10 7 kg, respectively. The temporal evolution of the storms' area and CG flash rate are shown to correlate well with the evolution of rainfall parameters, such as storm's rainfall yield (m 3), conditional mean rainfall rate, and the fraction of rain area. The consideration of the kinematics and CG lightning flashes of convective systems and the knowledge of their life cycle stage demonstrate a potential for drawing information useful in rain rate retrievals and their variability.

A study of the total lightning activity in two hailstorms

Two thunderstorms which developed in the northeastern region of Spain on 17 August 2004 are analyzed. According to radar and ground observations, one of these storms produced large hail (larger than 19 mm) and therefore could be severe. Both thunderstorms exhibited strong vertical developments with cloud tops reaching 17.5 and 14 km for the severe and the nonsevere ones, respectively. The total lightning activity was monitored, thanks to the Spanish magnetic‐direction‐finding and time‐of‐arrival (MDF/TOA) network and thanks to a regional very‐high‐frequency (VHF) interferometer network. Both storms presented low cloud‐to‐ground (CG) flash rates (lower than 2 min−1) during their mature phase, while the intracloud (IC) flash rate reached 92 min−1 for the severe one. The IC/CG flash ratio was very high for both storms: 35 and 60 in average value for the severe and the nonsevere ones, respectively. The lightning characteristics exhibited low values in terms of peak current and multiplicity for negative CG (−CG) flashes and in terms of VHF source number per flash for IC flashes. The average multiplicity of the −CG flashes was 1.74 and 1.17 for the severe and the nonsevere storms, respectively, and their average peak current was −11.7 and −10.65 kA, respectively. When the presence of hail is suspected from high radar reflectivity values in both cells, the flash rates tended to substantially decrease. The severe storm produced positive CG (+CG) flashes during 1 hour, and at that moment, the multiplicity and peak currents of −CG flashes were very low. Lightning activity for both storms ended with a substantial increase of the −CG flash rate. The elevated charge hypothesis is consistent with the observations, especially if we consider two aspects of this hypothesis, the one about charge separation, which could be limited by the strong updrafts, and the one about the lightning initiation, which could be favored by low pressures at high altitude.

Lightning activity and precipitation structure of hailstorms

By using the cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning location data from the lightning detection network of Henan Province, surface Doppler radar data and standard orbit data of PR, TMI and LIS on TRMM satellite, the spatial and temporal characteristics of CG lightning flashes in 10 severe hailstorms are analyzed. The results show that the percentage of +CG lightning in these hailstorms is high with an average value of 45.5%. There is a distinct increase in CG flash rate during the rapid development stage of hailstorms. The hailstone falling corresponds to an active positive flash period, and the increase of +CG flash rate is generally accompanied with a decrease of −CG flash rate. The flash rate declines rapidly during the dissipating stage of hailstorms. The precipitation structure and lightning activity in two typical hailstorms are studied in detail. It is found that strong convective cells with reflectivity greater than 30dBZ mainly are situated in the front region of hailstorms, whereas the trailing stratiform region is in the rear part of the hailstorms. The maximum heights of echo top are higher than 14 km. Convective rain contributes much more rainfall to the total than stratiform rain, and the convective rain takes about 85% and 97% of the total in the two cases, respectively. Total lightning in the hailstorms is very active with the flash rate up to 183 fl/min and 55 fl/min, respectively. The results also indicate that most lightning flashes occurred in the echo region greater than 30 dBZ and its immediate periphery. The probability of lightning occurrence is 20 times higher in the convective region than in the stratiform region. The result suggests that the lightning information is helpful to the identification of convective rain region. The linear relationship between flash rate and ice water content is disclosed primarily.

Cloud‐to‐ground lightning and surface rainfall in warm‐season Florida thunderstorms

Relationships between cloud‐to‐ground (CG) lightning and surface rainfall have been examined in nine isolated, warm‐season thunderstorms on the east coast of central Florida. CG flashes and the associated rain volumes were measured as a function of time in storm‐centered reference frames that followed each storm over a network of rain gauges. Values of the storm‐average rain volume per CG flash ranged from 0.70 × 104 to 6.4 × 104 m3/CG flash, with a mean (and standard deviation) of 2.6 × 104 ± 2.1 × 104 m3/CG flash. Values of the rain volume concurrent with CG flashes ranged from 0.11 × 104 to 4.9 × 104 m3/CG flash with a mean of 2.1 × 104 ± 2.0 × 104 m3/CG flash. The lag‐time between the peak CG flash rate and the peak rainfall rate (using 5 min bins), and the results of a lag correlation analysis, show that surface rainfall tends to follow the lightning (positive lag) by up to 20 min in six storms. In one storm the rainfall preceded the lightning by 5 min, and two storms had nonsignificant lags. Values of the lagged rain volume concurrent with CG flashes ranged from 0.43 × 104 to 4.9 × 104 m3/CG flash, and the mean was 1.9 × 104 ± 1.7 × 104 m3/CG flash. For the five storms that produced 12 or more flashes and had significant lags, a plot of the optimum lag time versus the total number of CG flashes shows a linear trend (R2 = 0.56). The number of storms is limited, but the lag results do indicate that large storms tend to have longer lags. A linear fit to the lagged rain volume vs. the number of concurrent CG flashes has a slope of 1.9 × 104 m3/CG flash (R2 = 0.83). We conclude that warm‐season Florida thunderstorms produce a roughly constant rain volume per CG flash and that CG lightning can be used to estimate the location and intensity of convective rainfall in that weather regime.

Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Flash Parameters Associated with Heavy Rainfall Alarms in the Denver, Colorado, Urban Drainage and Flood Control District ALERT Network

Abstract Rainfall data from the Denver, Colorado, Urban Drainage and Flood Control District Automated Local Evaluation in Real Time (ALERT) network were used to identify heavy rainfall alarms for the period 1999–2003. Twenty-nine heavy rainfall-rate alarms were identified. Cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning flash data from the National Lightning Detection Network (NLDN) were analyzed for the 90 min prior to each heavy rainfall alarm. Spatial patterns from NLDN data were extracted using a point-polygon topology developed with basic Geographic Information System procedures. The information extracted from the polygons was used to calculated summary statistics for rainfall rates, CG flash rates, and CG flash duration. Heavy rainfall episodes were divided into two groups based on latitude, longitude, and elevation. Heavy rainfall episodes in the higher elevations of the study area produced an average of 29 mm of rainfall per episode and 1095 CG flashes in the 90 min prior to the rainfall-rate alarm. Only five polygons, all closely proximal to the alarm sites, produced significant CG flash rates prior to the rainfall alarms, and areas with CG flash durations greater than 25 min were clustered near the rainfall-rate alarm sites. In the second group (the lower elevation stations) the mean event produced a total of 33 mm of rainfall and 1182 CG flashes during the 90 min prior to the rainfall alarm. Four polygons saw consistent CG flash rates in the 90 min prior to the heavy rainfall alarms and CG flash duration was at its greatest in areas just west of the ALERT stations.

A 3-year study of cloud-to-ground lightning flash characteristics of Mesoscale convective systems over the Western Mediterranean Sea

In this paper cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning flashes of 33 Mesoscale Convective Systems (MCSs) over the Western Mediterranean area are analyzed. Mean values of 22% for the positive CG ratio, 1.1 (2.4) for positive (negative) CG multiplicity, 17 kA (22.6 kA) of peak current for the positive (negative) CG flashes and a mean flash rate of around 13 min − 1 are obtained. The percentage of positive CGs and the multiplicity of negative CG are higher, while the mean peak currents are lower than in previous studies on MCSs. A more detailed case analysis reveals that there are great differences among the CG characteristics of MCSs. The life cycle of CG lightning associated with MCSs is also analyzed. The growing stages of MCSs are characterised by high CG lightning activity. The positive CG flash rate generally reaches a maximum before the negative CG flash rate does. In both cases the peak is recorded before or when MCSs show the largest area. Maximum flash rate and densities coincide with the area where the MCS shows the minimum cloud-top temperatures and therefore shows highest vertical development.

Evolution of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning and Storm Structure in the Spencer, South Dakota, Tornadic Supercell of 30 May 1998

Abstract On 30 May 1998, a tornado devastated the town of Spencer, South Dakota. The Spencer tornado (rated F4 on the Fujita tornado intensity scale) was the third and most intense of five tornadoes produced by a single supercell storm during an approximate 1-h period. The supercell produced over 76% positive cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning and a peak positive CG flash rate of 18 flashes min−1 (5-min average) during a 2-h period surrounding the tornado damage. Earlier studies have reported anomalous positive CG lightning activity in some supercell storms producing violent tornadoes. However, what makes the CG lightning activity in this tornadic storm unique is the magnitude and timing of the positive ground flashes relative to the F4 tornado. In previous studies, supercells dominated by positive CG lightning produced their most violent tornado after they attained their maximum positive ground flash rate, whenever the rate exceeded 1.5 flashes min−1. Further, tornadogenesis often occurred during a lull in CG lightning activity and sometimes during a reversal from positive to negative polarity. Contrary to these findings, the positive CG lightning flash rate and percentage of positive CG lightning in the Spencer supercell increased dramatically while the storm was producing F4 damage on Spencer. These results have important implications for the use of CG lightning in the nowcasting of tornadoes and for the understanding of cloud electrification in these unique storms. In order to further explore these issues, the authors present detailed analyses of storm evolution and structure using Sioux Falls, South Dakota, (KFSD) Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) radar reflectivity and Doppler velocity and National Lightning Detection Network (NLDN) CG lightning data. The analyses suggest that a merger between the Spencer supercell and a squall line on its rear flank may have provided the impetus for both the F4 tornadic damage and the dramatic increase in positive CG lightning during the tornado, possibly explaining the difference in timing compared to past studies.

Relationships between Convective Storm Kinematics, Precipitation, and Lightning

Combined multiparameter radar, dual-Doppler, thermodynamic sounding, and lightning observations of 11 thunderstorms (6 from the midlatitudes, 5 from the Tropics) are examined. The thunderstorms span a wide spectrum of intensities, from weak monsoontype to severe tornadic, and include both unicellular and multicellular convection. In general, the kinematically strongest storms featured lower production of negative cloud-to-ground lightning (typically ,1 min21 flash rates for large portions of the storms’ lifetimes) when compared with more moderate convection, in accord with an elevated charge mechanism. The only significant differences between intense storms that produced predominately positive cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning for a significant portion of their lifetimes (PPCG storms) and intense storms that produced little CG lightning of any polarity (low-CG storms) was that PPCG storms featured much larger volumes of significant updrafts (both.10 and .20 m s21) and produced greater amounts of precipitation (both rain and hail). Otherwise, peak updrafts and vertical airmass fluxes were very similar between the two types of storms, and both types were linked by anomalously low production of negative CG lightning. PPCG effects in storms may result from an elevated region of negative charge (reducing negative CG flash rates) combined with enhanced net positive charge regions created by the larger volume of significant updrafts.

Influences of the Local Environment on Supercell Cloud-to-Ground Lightning, Radar Characteristics, and Severe Weather on 2 June 1995*

Abstract Radar, cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning characteristics, and storm reports were documented for 20 long-lived supercell thunderstorms that occurred during a 6-h period in the west Texas Panhandle on 2–3 June 1995. These thunderstorms occurred in proximity to a preexisting mesoscale outflow boundary. Storms that remained on the warm side of the mesoscale outflow boundary and storms that formed directly on the boundary tended to produce weaker low-level rotation, lower maximum heights for the 40-dBZ echo top, and had the largest negative CG flash rates. The largest negative flash rate was produced as each storm was gradually weakening. In contrast, out of 11 boundary-crossing storms, several important radar-based measurands increased unambiguously after storms crossed the boundary: 40-dBZ echo-top height in 5 cases, radar reflectivity above the environmental freezing level in 6 cases, and low-level mesocyclone strength in 9 cases. Trends of the first two measurands were ambiguous for 4 of 11 cases aff...