Cloud Forest In Mexico Research Articles

Nuevos registros de Hypocreales (Sordariomycetes, Ascomycota) del bosque mesófilo de montaña de la Sierra Alta Hidalguense en México

Antecedentes y Objetivos: El orden Hypocreales se distribuye ampliamente en las regiones templadas y tropicales del mundo. Se han registrado 17 especies en el bosque mesófilo de montaña para México. El objetivo de este estudio es ampliar el conocimiento taxonómico de las especies de Hypocreales en México y en particular de la Sierra Alta Hidalguense.Métodos: Fueron realizadas cinco exploraciones en la Sierra Alta Hidalguense entre 2011 y 2014. Fueron recolectadas ocho especies y se describieron morfológicamente siguiendo las técnicas tradicionales micológicas.Resultados clave: Se citan por primera vez siete especies de Hypocreales para México. Bionectria grammicospora pertenece a la familia Bionectriaceae; Hypomyces boletiphagus a Hypocreaceae, Sarcopodium flavolanatum, Thelonectria ostrina, T. veuillotiana y Viridispora alata a Nectriaceae y Valetoniella pauciornata a Niessliaciaceae. Bionectria ochroleuca se registra por vez primera para el bosque mesófilo de montaña en el estado de Hidalgo. Se presentan descripciones taxonómicas e ilustraciones de las ocho especies.Conclusiones: Los bosques mesófilos de montaña de México son ecosistemas con alta diversidad de especies y el orden Hypocreales no es la excepción, por lo que es necesario continuar realizando exploraciones y estudios taxonómicos de este grupo de hongos en este tipo de vegetación.

Occurrence of syntopic species of shrews (Mammalia, Eulipotyphla) in a montane cloud forest of Mexico

As part of a short-term survey for collecting shrews during October 2006, our fieldwork team recorded the coexistence of four species of shrews: 14 individuals of Cryptotis goldmani machetes (10♀ - 4♂), 14 of C. phillipsii (6♀ - 8♂), seven of Sorex salvini oaxacae (7♀), and three of S. veraepacis mutabilis (2♀ - 1♂). All these four taxa are not sister species, even when some of them are congeneric

Patrones de diversidad y distribución de helechos y licopodios en un bosque mesófilo de montaña de México

La relación de la riqueza, diversidad y distribución de especies de helechos y licopodios con algunas variables climáticas y edáficas se analizó en el bosque mesófilo de montaña del municipio de Tlanchinol, Hidalgo. Se establecieron 24 parcelas de muestreo de 400 m2 cada una, en tres pisos altitudinales situados entre 1,107 y 1,903 m. La diversidad alfa y beta, y el valor de importancia relativa (VIR) de las especies se estimaron en cada parcela. La relación entre la riqueza, diversidad, VIR y las variables ambientales se estableció mediante análisis de redundancia, regresión lineal y árboles de regresión. Pocas especies presentaron VIR altos por parcela; los valores de riqueza y diversidad no mostraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas (P < 0.05) con respecto a la altitud, pero sí con la temperatura mínima del mes más frío, precipitación del trimestre más cálido, orientación y pendiente. La diversidad beta incrementó con la altitud; esta diversidad fue baja entre pisos cercanos y alta en los extremos del gradiente. La distribución de las especies se relacionó positivamente con la materia orgánica, isotermalidad y contenido de sodio; y negativamente con la precipitación del mes más seco, evapotranspiración real anual y evapotranspiración real en la temporada de lluvias.

Spore Germination of Three Tree Fern Species in Response to Light, Water Potential, and Canopy Openness

The response to the canopy openness of species in tropical forests is a source of niche differentiation. The tree ferns Alsophila firma, Cyathea divergens and Lophosoria quadripinnata coexist in a cloud forest in Mexico; the first is abundant in creeks, the second occupies slightly open places, and the third prefers more open sites. We hypothesized that the distribution of these species would be correlated with their germination patterns. To test the hypothesis we evaluated the effect of light, water potential and canopy openness on spore germination. Spores were incubated under different light filters modifying red:far-red ratio or light intensity, water potential was modified with polyethylene glycol solutions and distinct canopy openness were selected in the field. No germination occurred in darkness, and it was low under red light and far-red light; however, all species germinated at a very low photon flux density (PFD, 0.04 mmol m 22 s 21 ). The decrease of water potential from 0 MPa to 20.7 MPa reduced germination in all species, from 98.6% to 72.2% in L. quadripinnata, 66.4% to 18.9% in A. firma and 74.2% to 4.1% in C. divergens. The increase of the canopy openness reduced the germination capacity of the three species, but L. quadripinnata was the least affected. The germination requirements of the three tree fern species were partially related to the distribution of the sporophytes in the cloud forest.

Efecto de la fragmentación en la morfometría foliar y el ambiente de Quercus germana Schldl. & Cham. (Fagaceae) en Xalapa, Veracruz

Quercus germana es una especie endémica del bosque mesófilo de montaña de México. La presión de selección que la fragmentación y los cambios ambientales ejercen, sugieren diferenciación fenotípica. Por lo anterior, la relación de la diferenciación foliar de Q. germana con la fragmentación y las condiciones ambientales se evaluó en seis sitios del bosque mesófilo de Xalapa, Veracruz. Para ello, se colectaron 10 hojas de las ramas nones de 30 individuos por sitio; se midieron 10 características morfométricas foliares y siete ambientales. Los análisis de varianza se realizaron con el modelo linear generalizado; se utilizó un análisis discriminante, se construyeron árboles de ligamiento UPGMA y se proyectaron las poblaciones tridimensionalmente. Las distancias de Mahalanobis se compararon con una prueba de Mantel para estimar la relación morfométrica y ambiental. Las variables morfológicas que mejor separan los sitios son mucrones, nervaduras y tamaño del peciolo. Ambientalmente, las variables más discriminantes son luz, temperatura y pérdida de humedad. La prueba de Mantel no mostró relación entre las diferencias morfométricas y ambientales (r = 0.090, P = 0.306). Las subpoblaciones de Q. germana son morfológicamente diferentes a pesar de la distancia corta que las separa, lo cual indica que posiblemente son afectadas por la fragmentación aún sin influencia ambiental.

Parmotrema species in a cloud forest region turned into an urban zone in Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico

The cloud forest of Mexico has the highest biodiversity among the country's diverse forest types; however, 90 % of the cloud forest ecosystem in the region of Xalapa has been destroyed and what remains is at risk. This region is home to an enormous diversity of lichen species. In a lichen survey carried out in this remnant of cloud forest in Xalapa, which has been turned into an urban area, we identified only eight species of Parmotrema, all of which showed vegetative propagules. Regardless of the role of the genus in the ecosystems, these lichens may be disappearing as a result of the transformation and destruction of the cloud forest ecosystem in Mexico.

La familia Fagaceae en el bosque mesófilo de montaña de México

El bosque mesófilo de montaña (bmm) en México es uno de los biomas más frágiles, en el cual algunas especies de la familia Fagaceae juegan un papel ecológico clave. Con base en datos obtenidos de revisiones de material de herbario, publicaciones sobre el bmm, verificación en campo y del Sistema de Información de los Bosques Mesófilos de Montaña en México (SI-BMM) elaborado por la Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad (CONABIO), se presenta un análisis de la familia Fagaceae en el bmm de México, y en las 13 regiones prioritarias para la conservación del bmm en el país propuestas por la CONABIO. Los resultados muestran que la familia está representada en dicha comunidad por 46 especies de Quercus (32 de la sección Lobatae y 14 de la sección Quercus ) y una de Fagus , de ellas 13 se consideran exclusivas o casi exclusivas de esta comunidad y endémicas de México. De las 13 regiones prioritarias, la región III (Huasteca Alta Hidalguense) resultó la de mayor diversidad con 26 especies, seguida de la V (Centro de Veracruz) con 23, mientras que las regiones VII (Los Tuxtlas) y VIII (Sierra Sur de Michoacán) son las menos diversas con solo dos y cuatro especies respectivamente. El análisis de diversidad ß muestra un recambio de moderado a alto que va de 0.41 a 1 entre las 13 regiones analizadas. Las regiones más similares en cuanto a especies de Fagaceae fueron la III y la V. Las especies de Fagaceae del bmm señaladas con alguna categoría de riesgo o amenaza son 41. Destacan ocho especies de encinos de la sección Lobatae que se consideran críticamente amenazadas y cinco de la sección Quercus en la misma categoría.

Descomposición de hojarasca en seis arroyos de Bosque Mesófilo de Montaña en la cuenca alta del río La Antigua, Veracruz, México

Leaf litter decomposition is an important stream ecosystem process. To understand factors controlling leaf decomposition in cloud forest in Mexico, we incubated leaf packs in different streams along a land use cover gradient for 35 days during the dry and wet seasons. We assessed relations between leaf decomposition rates (k), stream physicochemistry, and macroinvertebrates colonizing leaf packs. Physicochemical parameters showed a clear seasonal difference at all study streams. Leaves were colonized by collector-gatherer insects, followed by shredders. Assessment of factors related to k indicated that only forest cover was negatively related to leaf decomposition rates. Thus stream physicochemistry and seasonality had no impact on decomposition rates. We concluded that leaf litter decomposition at our study streams is a stable process over the year. However, it is possible that this stability is the result of factors regulating decomposition during the different seasons and streams.

Hongos ascomicetos del bosque mesófilo de montaña en México

Se presenta una puesta al día de la diversidad de los ascomicetos citados del bosque mesófilo de montaña (BMM) en México. A la fecha se conocen un total de 107 especies de las cuales 69 están presentes en el estado de Veracruz. Los taxa corresponden a 18 órdenes, 29 familias y 52 géneros. La familia Xylariaceae es la más diversa, y los géneros Xylaria e Hypoxylon los mejor representados. Algunas de las características ecológicas de las especies fueron analizadas; se encontró que el grupo trófico de hongos saprobios es el más abundante, mientras que la madera en descomposición es el sustrato donde se encontraron la mayoría de las especies. En cuanto a la diversidad taxonómica de los hospederos, 20 familias y 22 géneros de plantas vasculares se registraron en asociación con este grupo de hongos. Al menos una familia de ascomicetos registrada del bosque mesófilo (Hyaloscyphaceae) podría considerarse recurrente en helechos de la familia Cyatheaceae.

Extinction risk in cloud forest fragments under climate change and habitat loss

AbstractAimTo quantify the consequences of major threats to biodiversity, such as climate and land‐use change, it is important to use explicit measures of species persistence, such as extinction risk. The extinction risk of metapopulations can be approximated through simple models, providing a regional snapshot of the extinction probability of a species. We evaluated the extinction risk of three species under different climate change scenarios in three different regions of the Mexican cloud forest, a highly fragmented habitat that is particularly vulnerable to climate change.LocationCloud forests in Mexico.MethodsUsing Maxent, we estimated the potential distribution of cloud forest for three different time horizons (2030, 2050 and 2080) and their overlap with protected areas. Then, we calculated the extinction risk of three contrasting vertebrate species for two scenarios: (1) climate change only (all suitable areas of cloud forest through time) and (2) climate and land‐use change (only suitable areas within a currently protected area), using an explicit patch‐occupancy approximation model and calculating the joint probability of all populations becoming extinct when the number of remaining patches was less than five.ResultsOur results show that the extent of environmentally suitable areas for cloud forest in Mexico will sharply decline in the next 70 years. We discovered that if all habitat outside protected areas is transformed, then only species with small area requirements are likely to persist. With habitat loss through climate change only, high dispersal rates are sufficient for persistence, but this requires protection of all remaining cloud forest areas.Main conclusionsEven if high dispersal rates mitigate the extinction risk of species due to climate change, the synergistic impacts of changing climate and land use further threaten the persistence of species with higher area requirements. Our approach for assessing the impacts of threats on biodiversity is particularly useful when there is little time or data for detailed population viability analyses.

Selection and interpretation of soil quality indicators for forest recovery after clearing of a tropical montane cloud forest in Mexico

Through slash-and-burn techniques, vast areas formerly occupied by tropical montane cloud forest (TMCF) in Mexico have been converted into croplands and secondary forest of different ages. Despite the dramatic changes in soil properties and processes detected during cropping and forest regeneration, no attempts have been made to develop soil quality indicators (SQI) to assist in the assessment of soil conditions during such changes. SQI are considered to be essential in evaluating plans of forest restoration or management; as such, the objectives of this study were to (i) select soil properties that can be used as SQI during forest regeneration for abandoned crop fields in a TMCF area managed under the slash-and-burn method; and (ii) examine the ecological significance of stand age for function-based interpretations of the selected SQI. To this end, the soil properties of three adjacent chronosequences in El Rincón, Sierra Norte, Southern Mexico were analyzed. Each chronosequence consisted of ordered series of five stands of different age after abandonment: a cornfield and adjacent forests of ∼15 (incipient forest), ∼45 (young forest), ∼75 (mature forest), and⩾100 (old-growth forest) years after abandonment. The soil properties of undisturbed old-growth forest stands were used as a reference. After inspection of principal component analysis results and control charts, the following soil properties were chosen as SQI in TMCF areas: soil organic carbon, pH, plant-available P, O horizon thickness and exchangeable Al3+. The selected SQI displayed different rates of change during forest regeneration. Soil organic carbon had a fast recovery rate and, therefore, a greater ability to return to its original level after disturbance. In contrast, O horizon thickness, soil pH, plant-available P, and exchangeable Al3+ showed a slow rate of change during the fallow period. SQI did not always change linearly nor improve with the age of the forest. The highest exchangeable Al3+ concentration was detected in 45-year-old forests, suggesting that at this forest age, soil become an important filter against Al3+ sensitive species, potentially affecting vegetation composition. Considering the slow recovery rate of some SQI, we estimate that fallow periods of at least 100years are required in order to reach good soil quality in TMCF ecosystems. Management practices should therefore consider the maintenance of forest of different ages spanning at least 100years in the landscape. Doing so would achieve more sustainable management practices by allowing a relatively continuous recovery of the ecosystem without prolonged interruptions of land utilization.

Two new fungi from Mexico: Anaseptoidium gen. nov. and Cylindrosympodium sosae sp. nov.

Two new anamorphic fungi are described and illustrated from a cloud forest in Mexico. Anaseptoidium mycophilum gen. & sp. nov. is distinguished by monoblastic, integrated, mostly determinate conidiogenous cells and solitary, 2–3-septate, oblong to cylindrical, pale brown conidia that usually remain attached after maturity. Cylindrosympodium sosae sp. nov. is characterized by cylindrical, mostly 4–5-septate, smooth, hyaline to subhyaline, sometimes guttulate conidia.

Phylogenetic Composition of Angiosperm Diversity in the Cloud Forests of Mexico

ABSTRACTSeveral members of the most ancient living lineages of flowering plants (angiosperms) inhabit humid, woody, mostly tropical habitats. Here we assess whether one of these forest types, the cloud forests of Mexico (CFM), contain a relatively higher proportion of phylogenetically early‐diverging angiosperm lineages. The CFM houses an extraordinary plant species diversity, including members of earliest‐diverging angiosperm lineages. The phylogenetic composition of CFM angiosperm diversity was evaluated through the relative representation of orders and families with respect to the global flora, and the predominance of phylogenetically early‐ or late‐diverging lineages. Goodness‐of‐fit tests indicated significant differences in the proportional local and global representation of angiosperm clades. The net difference between the percentage represented by each order and family in the CFM and the global flora allowed identification of clades that are overrepresented and underrepresented in the CFM. Early‐diverging angiosperm orders and families were found to be neither over‐ nor underrepresented in the CFM. A slight predominance of late‐diverging phylogenetic levels among overrepresented clades, however, was encountered in the CFM. The resulting pattern suggests that cloud forests provide habitats where the most ancient angiosperm lineages have survived in the face of accumulating species diversity belonging to phylogenetically late‐diverging lineages.

Species-specific characteristics of trees can determine the litter macroinvertebrate community and decomposition process below their canopies

This paper tests whether individual trees in a mature forest stand influence the process of litter decomposition and the macroinvertebrate communities in the soil underneath their canopies, as a result of species-specific characteristics. A field decomposition experiment was performed in a mature forest stand of tropical montane cloud forest in Mexico. The areas under the canopies of Quercus laurina Humbl. & Bompl., Oreopanax xalapensis (Kunth) Decne. & Planchon and Beilschmedia ovalis (Blake) C. K. Allen trees were used as experimental units. The natural soil and litter macroinvertebrate communities were monitored and compared to the community that invaded decomposition boxes with reciprocally transplanted leaf litter. The abundances of four macroinvertebrate taxa in natural litter differed among tree species independently of season. No differences were found in the soil community. The response to experimental litter by macroinvertebrate taxa suggests that the production of a specific quality of litter is an important mechanism by which a tree influences the litter macroinvertebrate community that develops under its canopy. However, not all differences in community composition naturally found between tree species can be explained by differences in litter quality during the first year of decomposition. Differences in nutrient release that occur after the first year, and physical properties of litter also probably play an important role. Independently of the canopy tree, the initial chemical quality (N, P, Ca, Mg and lignin) of experimental litter largely determined the decomposition rate and nutrient dynamics of decomposing leaves. However, it was found that under O. xalapensis trees the breakdown of lignin from the litter produced by the same species of tree was particularly effective. This suggests that a feedback has developed between this tree species and the decomposer community prevailing under its canopy.

Decomposition and macroinvertebrates in experimental litter along a secondary chronosequence of tropical montane forest

This paper presents the results of a decomposition experiment performed in a secondary chronosequence of tropical montane cloud forest in Mexico. The experiment was designed to explore whether the age of the forest influences the decomposition process and macroinvertebrate community independently of the quality of the decomposition resources. Fresh Pinus chiapensis needles and Persea americana leaves were set to decompose in each of four successional stages (15, 45, 75 and 100 years old). Results do not support the hypothesis that decomposition rate declines with increasing nutrient deficiency as forest succession proceeds. However, the chemical composition in decomposing leaves differed between successional stages. Higher availability of Ca in the 15-year-old forest appears to promote a positive feedback in the release of this nutrient from Persea americana leaves. Additionally, in old forests, a soil community that is more capable of breaking down recalcitrant material (acid detergent lignin) appears to have developed compared to early successional stages. The diversity of macroinvertebrates and abundance of predatory (Aranea and Diplura), detrivorous (Diplopoda) and geophagous (Enchytaeidae) taxa were different between boxes placed in different successional stages. We conclude that the decomposition and associated biota differ between successional stages. Apart from differences in litter quality, other factors associated with the age of the forest, such as small differences in soil temperature and long-lasting effects of disturbance, may also play influential roles.

Spatial Patchiness of Litter, Nutrients and Macroinvertebrates during Secondary Succession in a Tropical Montane Cloud Forest in Mexico

We test the hypothesis that secondary succession in Tropical Montane Cloud Forest (TMCF) in Mexico is accompanied by an increase in the spatial structuring of litter resources, soil nutrient concentrations and the soil macroinvertebrate community at a within-plot scale (5–25 m). This increased spatial structuring is expected because secondary succession in these forests is associated with an increase in the diversity of trees that dominate the canopy. If each tree species generates a particular soil environment under its canopy, then under a diverse tree community, soil properties will be spatially very heterogeneous. Tree censuses and grid sampling were performed in four successional stages of a secondary chronosequence of TMCF. Variography was used to analyse spatial patterns in continuous variables such as nutrient concentrations, while Spatial Analysis by Distance Indices (SADIE) was applied to determine patchiness in the distribution of soil macroinvertebrate taxa. Secondary succession was found to be accompanied by the predicted increase in the spatial structuring of litter resources and the macroinvertebrate community at the within-plot scale. Spatial patterns in the macroinvertebrate community only became evident for all taxa in the oldest forest (100 years old). Patches with low Ca and Mg concentrations in early successional soils were associated with patches where pine litter was most abundant while those with low P concentrations in late successional stages were associated with patches where oak litter was most abundant. Results suggest that anthropogenic disturbance aboveground promotes a more homogeneous resource environment in the surface soil, which compared to older forests, sustains a less diverse and less spatially structured macroinvertebrate community.

Seedling survival and growth of three species of mountain cloud forest in Mexico, under different canopy treatments

The survival and growth of Quercus germana Schltdl. & Cham., Q. xalapensis Humb. & Bonpl. and Magnolia dealbata Zucc. was evaluated in three treatments: (1) under the canopy of Pinus maximinoi H.E. Moore; (2) under the canopy of Liquidambar macrophylla Oersted, and (3) in open areas. The following hypothesis was presented: P. maximinoi and L. macrophylla canopy facilitate the establishment of Quercus germana, Q. xalapensis, and Magnolia dealbata. After one year, the survival of seedlings and the growth rate in height and basal diameter were significantly different between treatments and species (p < 0.05). The results suggest a facilitation establishment of Magnolia dealbata under the canopy of Pinus and Liquidambar, whereas the tolerance was observed for Quercus germana and Q. xalapensis. The results will allow to identify restoration strategies of the mountain cloud forest in Mexico.

Experimental Native Tree Seedling Establishment for the Restoration of a Mexican Cloud Forest

Abstract The cloud forests of Mexico have been degraded and severely fragmented, and urgently require restoration. However, progress with restoration has been constrained by a lack of information concerning the seedling ecology of native tree species. An experiment was therefore conducted to assess the influence of different environmental factors on the seedling survival and growth of four native tree species (Fagus grandifolia var. mexicana, Carpinus caroliniana, Symplocos coccinea, and Quercus acutifolia). The seedlings were established on three sites, in two contrasting environments: inside forest fragments and on adjacent agricultural land. Highly significant differences were recorded in seedling survival and growth among sites, environments, species, and interactions between these factors. Highest survival was recorded for Quercus, which uniquely among the four species displayed the same survival percentage inside and outside the forest. Survival of the other species was higher inside the forest. In contrast, growth rates of all four species were higher outside the forest. The most important cause of mortality outside the forest was desiccation, although significant seedling predation was also observed on two sites. Results indicate that all four species can be established successfully both within forest fragments and in neighboring agricultural areas, emphasizing the scope for forest restoration. However, the interactions observed between species, sites, and environments highlight the importance of accurate species–site matching if optimum rates of growth and survival are to be obtained. Quercus spp. have great potential for establishment on agricultural sites.

Variation in Growth and Demography of a Knob‐scaled Lizard (Xenosaurus newmanorum: Xenosauridae) from a Seasonal Tropical Environment in México

ABSTRACTWe studied growth and demography in a population of Xenosaurus newmanorum a lizard that lives in rock crevices in the tropical cloud forests of Mexico. Growth rates varied with season (faster in the wet season) and year (faster in 1995 and 1997, slower in 1996 and 1999). Males and females did not differ in growth rate. Proportion of reproductive females varied from year to year, with 1996 having the lowest proportion of reproductive females (32.5%) compared to the other years (all &gt;75%). The age/size structure changed slightly among years, but did not differ between the wet and dry seasons. On average, the sex ratio was female‐biased; however, the proportion of males in the population was greater in the dry season than in the wet season. Our results suggest that, like other lizards, growth and demographic characteristics of this population fluctuate with the proximate environment on both a seasonal and annual timescale.RESUMENEstudiamos los patrones de crecimiento y la demografia de una población de Xenosaurus newmanorum, una especie de lagartija que vive en las grietas de las rocas de los bosques de niebla de México. La tasa de crecimiento corporal varió en función de la época del año (más rápida en la época húmeda), y en función del año (más rápida en 1995 y 1997, y más lenta en 1996 y 1999). No hubo diferencias significativas en las tasas de crecimiento corporal de machos y hembras. La proporción de hembras reproductivas varió de ańo a ańo, 1996 fue el ańo con menor proporción de hembras reproductivas (32.5%) comparado con el resto de los ańos (todos ellos &gt; 75 %). La estructura de las clases de edad de esta población fluctuó levemente entre los años, pero no hubo diferencias entre las estaciones húmedas y secas. En promedio la proporción de sexos estuvo sesgada hacia las hembras; aunque la proporción de machos en la población fue mayor en la época seca que en la época húmeda. Nuestros resultados sugieren que, al igual que otras lagartijas, las características demográficas y de crecimiento corporal de esta población pueden fluctuar con base a factores próximos a escalas estacionales y anuales.

Reproductive conflicts ofPalicourea padifolia (Rubiaceae) a distylous shrub of a tropical cloud forest in Mexico

We studied a population of the distylous Palicourea padifolia (Rubiaceae) in a cloud forest remnant near Xalapa City, Veracruz, M6xico to explore possible asymmetries between floral morphs in the attractiveness to pollinators, seed dispersers, nectar robbers, floral parasites, and herbivores, we first assessed heterostyly and reciprocal herkogamy by measuring floral attri- butes such as corolla length (buds and open flowers), style and anther heights, stigma and stamen lengths and the distance between the anther tip to the stigma lobe. We then estimated floral and fruit attributes such as flower size, anther height, number and size of pollen grains, fruit size, seed size, nectar production, and flower and fruit standing crops to assess differences between floral morphs in attracting and effectively using mutua- listic pollinators and seed dispersers. Also, floral parasitism and nectar robbing were assessed in this study as a measure of flower attractiveness to antagonists. The system seems to conform well to classical heterostyly (e.g. reciprocal stamen/style lengths, pollen and anther dimorphism, intramorph incompatibility) yet, there were several tantalizing differences observed between pin and thrum morphs. Thrum flowers have longer corollas and larger but fewer pollen grains than pin flowers. Both morphs produced the same total number of inflorescences, developed the same number of buds, and opened the same number of flowers per