Close Social Interactions Research Articles

Ethnicity as a predictor of gender segregation among young children in an informal urban settlement in Kenya

AbstractAlthough the emergence of gender segregation in early childhood is a well‐established pattern in formal settings (i.e., group childcare, preschool) from research predominantly in North America, little is known about the gender segregation among young children in Sub‐Saharan Africa, especially in the contexts of ethnically diverse informal urban settlements. Using naturalistic observations of 62 focal‐children (2 to 4 year olds) from 4 ethnic groups (Kamba, Kikuyu, Luo, and Maasai) in one informal urban settlement in Kenya, we examined the gender segregation in social interactions and proximity to other children in their daily lives. Focal‐children's ethnicity, age, and gender were considered as potential predictors of gender segregation (i.e., tendency to spend time in close proximity or social interaction with children of their same gender). Ethnicity was the best predictor of gender segregation, as Maasai children exhibited more evidence of gender segregation than children of other ethnicities. Age and gender did not predict the patterns of gender segregation in this sample. Findings are discussed with respect to cultural roles related to gender, ethnically diverse urban communities, social development in early childhood, and prevalent assumptions about the universality of gender segregation in early childhood.

COVID-19 Social Distancing Measures and Loneliness Among Older Adults.

ObjectivesIn response to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, older adults are advised to follow social distancing measures to prevent infection. However, such measures may increase the risk of loneliness. The current study aimed to investigate (a) whether social distancing measures, particularly limiting close social interactions, are associated with loneliness among older adults, and (b) whether the association between social distancing measures and loneliness is moderated by sociodemographic characteristics.MethodData were from the fourth wave (April 29 to May 26, 2020) of the nationally representative Understanding America Study COVID-19 Survey. We used data on adults 50 years or older (N = 3,253). Logistic regression models of loneliness were performed. Five indicators of social distancing measures were considered: (a) avoiding public spaces, gatherings, or crowds; (b) canceling or postponing social activities; (c) social visits; (d) no close contact (within 6 feet) with people living together; and (e) with people not living together.ResultsCancelling or postponing social activities and avoiding close contact with people living together were associated with 33% (odds ratio [OR] = 1.33, confidence interval [CI] = 1.06−1.68, p < .05) and 47% (OR = 1.47, CI = 1.09−1.99, p < .05) greater odds of loneliness, respectively. Furthermore, limiting close contact with coresidents increased the probability of loneliness more for males, non-Hispanic Whites, and those with higher levels of education and income.DiscussionEfforts should be made to help older adults maintain social connectedness with close others by virtual communication methods. Our findings also call special attention to vulnerable groups at elevated risks of loneliness, emphasizing the need for tailored interventions.

COVID-19 Social Distancing Measures and Loneliness among Older Adults

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, older adults are advised to follow social distancing measures to prevent infection. However, such measures may increase the risk of loneliness. The current study aimed to investigate (1) whether social distancing measures, particularly limiting close social interactions, are associated with loneliness among older adults, and (2) whether the association between social distancing measures and loneliness is moderated by sociodemographic characteristics. Data were from the fourth wave (April 29 to May 26, 2020) of the nationally representative Understanding America Study (UAS) COVID-19 Survey. We used data on adults 50 years or older (N = 3,283). Multivariate logistic regression models of loneliness were examined to test the independent effects of social distancing measures and their interaction with sociodemographic characteristics on loneliness. Four indicators of social distancing measures were considered: (a) avoiding public spaces, gatherings, or crowds, (b) canceling or postponing social activities, (c) social visits, (d) close contact (within 6 feet) with others. Cancelling or postponing social activities and avoiding close contact with other people were associated with 36% and 41% greater odds of loneliness, respectively. Furthermore, males and non-Hispanic Whites who had no close contact with others had a significantly greater probability of reporting loneliness than those who had contact. Our findings emphasize the heterogeneous nature of COVID-19 related experiences across subpopulations of older adults and call special attention to vulnerable groups that may be more impacted by the challenge of COVID-19 social distancing.

Mild-to-moderate schizotypal traits relate to physiological arousal from social stress

Schizotypy denotes psychosis-like experiences, such as perceptual aberration, magical ideation, and social anxiety. Altered physiological arousal from social stress is found in people with high schizotypal traits. Two experiments aimed to determine the relationship of schizotypy to physiological arousal from social stress. Experiment 1 tested the hypotheses that heart rate from social stress would be greater in high, than mild-to-moderate, schizotypal traits, and disorganized schizotypy would explain this effect because of distress from disorganisation. Experiment 1 tested social stress in 16 participants with high schizotypal traits and 10 participants with mild-to-moderate schizotypal traits. The social stress test consisted of a public speech and an informal discussion with strangers. The high schizotypal group had a higher heart rate than the mild-to-moderate schizotypal group during the informal discussion with strangers, but not during the public speech. Disorganized schizotypy accounted for this group difference. Experiment 2 tested the hypothesis that mild-to-moderate schizotypal traits would have a linear relationship with physiological arousal from social stress. Experiment 2 tested 24 participants with mild-to-moderate schizotypal traits performing the abovementioned social stress test while their heart rate and skin conductance responses were measured. Mild-to-moderate schizotypal traits had a linear relationship with physiological arousal during the discussion with strangers. Distress in disorganized schizotypy may explain the heightened arousal from close social interaction with strangers in high schizotypy than mild-to-moderate schizotypy. Mild-to-moderate schizotypal traits may have a linear relationship with HR during close social interaction because of difficulty with acclimatizing to the social interaction.

Distribution of RNA M. Leprae Household Contact in Endemic Area Indonesia

Background and Objective: Chronic leprosy disease is caused by the transmission of Mycobacterium &#x0D; leprae bacilli, and leprosy is still as an enigmatic disease which is not fully understood. In terms of the&#x0D; national level, leprosy disease in Indonesia remains a public health problem. 16S rRNA gene is a gene that&#x0D; encodes which codes the 16S part of the ribosome and it has specific nucleotides and can specifically be used&#x0D; to detect the cases of leprosy.&#x0D; Materials and Method: This study was classified as the observational study using a case-control research&#x0D; design. The total samples were 81 individuals that consisted of 27 leprosy patients (the case group) and 54&#x0D; non-leprosy patients (the control group). Analysis of 16S rRNA gene expression was conducted using the&#x0D; RFLP-PCR method to detect the risk of leprosy.&#x0D; Results: All samples of swabs of ear lobes for the case group (27 samples) were definitely positive infected&#x0D; by M. leprae and 2 dust samples (7%) collected from houses of the case group showed positive infected by&#x0D; &#x0D; leprae bacilli, i.e. S05 and S09 respectively. Of all samples of dust collected from houses of non-leprosy&#x0D; &#x0D; patients (the control group), 4 dust samples (14%) was positive infected by Mycobacterium leprae, i.e.&#x0D; C03, C05, C09, C11 respectively, and 2 non-leprosy patients were infected by M. leprae due to close social&#x0D; interactions with leprosy patients.&#x0D; Conclusion: Dust medium and close social interactions were the causal factors for the transmission of&#x0D; leprosy disease. Therefore, it is suggested to conduct strict control to prevent the widespread of leprosy&#x0D; disease by keeping the cleanliness of houses at the local areas and the surrounding environment as well as&#x0D; the caution to do social interactions with leprosy individuals.

Dyadic affiliative preferences in a stable group of domestic pigs

Social preferences in pigs have received little attention despite the welfare implication of providing an adequate social environment for farm animals. We investigated the extent to which domestic pigs show affiliative preferences in three behavioural contexts—rest, exploration, social nosing—and whether these preferences were influenced by sex, relatedness and social dominance. We recorded the frequency at which pigs were associated in close spatial proximity during rest (≤30 cm) and exploration (≤1 m), and engaged in social nosing interactions (snout- snout and snout-body contacts) from age 23–29 weeks. The group consisted of 24 pigs from three mixed-sex litters of the same age, housed in an indoor pen and having free access to a large pasture area. To test for dyadic social preferences, we calculated associations in close proximity and social nosing interaction rates, classified them by strength and tested their significance with permutation methods. We then used the Multiple Regression Quadratic Assignment Procedure to test whether individual traits (sex, litter, dominance) and other social interactions (agonistic interactions, active lying down) explained the preferred partners. Preferences were overall relatively weak but found across all behavioural contexts—of all observed pairs, 44 % were preferred pairs when resting, 20 % when exploring, and 30 % when social nosing (snout-body contact). Snout-body contacts were weakly and negatively correlated with sex and dominance, whereas close proximity associations during rest and social nosing interactions were positively correlated with active lying down behaviour. Our results indicate that domestic pigs can develop preferred social relationships, and that such social preferences are weakly driven by individual attributes (sex and dominance) but influenced by the behavioural context. By shedding light on underexplored aspects of the social structure of pigs, our study strengthens the importance of accounting for the multiple drivers of social relationships to provide an adequate environment that improves management and welfare of pigs.

Divergent pathways mediate 5-HT1A receptor agonist effects on close social interaction, grooming and aggressive behaviour in mice: Exploring the involvement of the oxytocin and vasopressin systems.

5-HT1A receptor (5-HT1AR) abnormalities are implicated in aggression, and there has been considerable interest in developing 5-HT1AR agonists for treating aggression. Endogenous oxytocin (OXT) released upon stimulation of 5-HT1ARs in the hypothalamus mediates at least some of the effects of 5-HT1AR agonists on social behaviour. Given 5-HT1AR, OXT receptor (OXTR) and vasopressin V1a receptor (V1aR) agonists can all reduce aggression, the current study aimed to determine whether the anti-aggressive effects of 5-HT1AR stimulation can also be explained by downstream actions at OXTRs and/or V1aRs in a mouse model of non-territorial, hyper-aggressive behaviour. Male Swiss mice (N=80) were socially isolated or group housed for six weeks prior to the start of testing. Testing involved placing two unfamiliar weight- and condition-matched mice together in a neutral context for 10 minutes. Social isolation led to a pronounced increase in aggressive behaviour, which was dose-dependently inhibited by the 5-HT1AR agonist 8-OH-DPAT (0.1, 0.3 and 1 mg/kg intraperitoneally (i.p.)), with accompanying increases in close social contact (huddling) and grooming. The effects of 8-OH-DPAT on aggression, huddling and grooming were blocked by pretreatment with a selective 5-HT1AR antagonist (WAY-100635; 0.1 mg/kg i.p.). The anti-aggressive effects of 8-OH-DPAT were unaffected by an OXTR antagonist (L-368,899; 10 mg/kg i.p.), whereas the effects on huddling and grooming were inhibited. Pretreatment with a V1aR antagonist (SR49059; 20 mg/kg i.p.) had no effect. Our study suggests that stimulation of endogenous oxytocin is involved in the effects of 5-HT1AR activation on close social contact and grooming but not aggression.

Behaviour, biology and evolution of vocal learning in bats.

The comparative approach can provide insight into the evolution of human speech, language and social communication by studying relevant traits in animal systems. Bats are emerging as a model system with great potential to shed light on these processes given their learned vocalizations, close social interactions, and mammalian brains and physiology. A recent framework outlined the multiple levels of investigation needed to understand vocal learning across a broad range of non-human species, including cetaceans, pinnipeds, elephants, birds and bats. Here, we apply this framework to the current state-of-the-art in bat research. This encompasses our understanding of the abilities bats have displayed for vocal learning, what is known about the timing and social structure needed for such learning, and current knowledge about the prevalence of the trait across the order. It also addresses the biology (vocal tract morphology, neurobiology and genetics) and evolution of this trait. We conclude by highlighting some key questions that should be answered to advance our understanding of the biological encoding and evolution of speech and spoken communication. This article is part of the theme issue 'What can animal communication teach us about human language?'

Autophosphorylation of αCaMKII affects social interactions in mice.

The α-Ca2+ /calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (αCaMKII), a key regulator of the glutamatergic synapse, has been implicated in many psychiatric disorders characterized by social impairments. Here we tested whether autophosphorylation of αCaMKII at threonine 286, which prolongs the activity of the enzyme, affects social behaviors in mice. We observed that autophosphorylation-deficient (αCaMKII-T286A) mutant female mice showed abnormal social behaviors characterized by decreased social preference and interest in conspecifics of the same sex, as compared to their wild-type littermates. Moreover, we developed a mathematical approach to analyze social interactions in group-housed mice in the automated IntelliCages. Using this approach we observed that αCaMKII-T286A mutants show decreased levels of social interactions in a social group, as compared with WT mice. WT mice increased the frequency of close social interactions when learning about the location of the food reward. This phenomenon was absent in the mutants. Overall, our data indicates that autophosphorylation of αCaMKII affects social interactions.

Systems of secrecy: Confidences and gossip in management accountants’ handling of dual role expectations and MCS limitations

The article shows how secrecy – defined as the purposeful revelation of information to some and not others – is used by management accountants to pursue their roles as independent business controllers and nurture the social proximity required to be sought-after business advisers. The paper examines management accountants’ retentive and communicative strategies in reporting practices in a subset of a large multinational company. It conceptualizes systems of secrecy as the purposeful articulation between two types of revelations (confidences and gossip). It shows how confidences and gossip can be successive steps that structure informal reporting information flows and close social interactions helpful in dealing with tensions arising from attempts to manage interdependencies and to achieve individually specified targets. The article contributes to the literature on the dynamics of management accountants’ dual role by showing how they overcome the tensions between conflicting expectations through tactful and judicious distribution of information. It shows how the articulation of confidence and gossip creates a specific format of accounting talk which facilitates compromise through the succession of private one-on-one discursive spaces. It also complements the literature on management control systems (MCS) by giving a nuanced account of the virtues of secrecy in order to mitigate some of the unanticipated adverse effects of performance evaluations.

Gender differences in response to psychological treatment for social anxiety disorder in those with comorbid drug dependence

IntroductionIndividuals with social anxiety disorder do poorly in residential treatment programs for the treatment of drug dependence. This is not surprising given the social nature of residential rehabilitation where group work and close social interactions are required.ObjectivesGiven the social nature of residential rehabilitation, we were interested in exploring whether we could address social anxiety symptoms prior to treatment entry and therefore enhance the likelihood that an individual would enter treatment and stay in treatment.AimsTo conduct a randomised control trial to evaluate whether treatment of social anxiety symptoms prior to treatment entry improves treatment entry and retention.MethodTreatment seeking substance users (n = 105) completed intake assessment interviews for entry into a residential rehabilitation program. Assessment comprised the Mini International Neuropsychiatric interview (Mini), the alcohol, smoking and substance involvement screening test (ASSIST), the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS). Participants were randomised to either a four-session social anxiety intervention or treatment as usual (which was to remain on the waiting list until treatment entry). A survival analysis was conducted to examine whether the intervention impacted on treatment retention.ResultsThe treatment did not significantly impact on treatment but the intervention group were significantly more likely to remain in treatment and this effect was only found in women.ConclusionFor individuals with social anxiety disorder brief evidence based intervention focused on ameliorating social anxiety symptoms (e.g., cognitive behavioural treatment) may improve the retention in treatment. This effect appears to be gender specific.Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

The impact of social capital on competitive advantage

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to empirically examine the influence of social capital on competitive advantage through collective learning and absorptive capacity.Design/methodology/approach– The study carries out analyses based on structural equation modeling to measure the main constructs and test the hypothesized relationships among the variables. The primary statistical technique for assessing survey data collected from 358 Taiwan tenants is partial least squares analysis.Findings– Collective learning and absorptive capacity fully mediate the relationship between social capital and competitive advantage. Moreover, social capital has a significant influence on both collective learning and absorptive capacity.Practical implications– Tenant firms in industrial parks must develop effective management tactics for the nurturing of inter-firm relations to enhance collective learning and their absorptive capacity to acquire and exploit key strategic resources such as tacit and explicit knowledge. For specialized firms, close social interactions in specific contexts, mediated by collective learning and absorptive capacity to make up for their resource constraints, can heighten their competitive advantage.Originality/value– By demonstrating the impact of social capital on competitive advantage in the specific context of industrial parks, whose artificial environment encourages and promotes close social interactions among tenants, this paper overcomes previous and contradictory findings regarding the relationship between social capital and competitive advantage. A key contingent factor is the mediating role of collective learning and absorptive capacity.

The Religious Politics of Smallpox Vaccination, 1899-1901

Abstract In January 1900, John E. Cox filed a lawsuit in Third District Court, Salt Lake County, against the Salt Lake City Board of Education and the principal of Hamilton school, Samuel B. Doxey. Cox asserted that Doxey had violated the law on January 23 when he forbade his ten-year-old daughter, Florence Cox, to enter school on account of her failure to provide satisfactory proof of smallpox vaccination from a licensed medical doctor, a condition of school attendance. This condition existed due to the highly contagious nature of smallpox and the close social interaction that schools promoted. According to health authorities, a smallpox epidemic appeared to be imminent, with several cases of the disease in the Salt Lake Valley and two hundred more in the state. Yet Florence possessed “sound health” and no obvious signs of illness and, therefore, had been “wrongly excluded.” Cox’s attorney asserted: “Neither boards of health nor boards of education have a right to exclude unvaccinated children from schools, unless express authority is given by the Legislature or ordinance to that effect.” In the case at bar, “the health board is passing rules which in effect are legislative enactments.”1

Social support in late life mania: GERI‐BD

Using the database of the National Institute of Mental Health-sponsored acute treatment of late life mania study (GERI-BD), we assessed the role of social support in the presentation of late life bipolar mania. In the first 100 subjects randomized in geriatric BD, we explored the demographic, clinical, and social support characteristics (assessed using the Duke Social Support Index) and aspects of manic presentation. We selected two dependent variables: symptom severity, as determined by the Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS) at baseline, and duration of episode. We selected nine potential independent variables on the basis of Pearson correlation coefficients. We derived two final models using multiple regression analysis employing an iterative process. In our severity model, being married was associated with a higher YMRS score (p = 0.05), whereas higher social interaction scores with non-family members were associated with a lower YMRS score (p = 0.011). In the episode duration model, longer duration was associated with a higher Hamilton Depression Rating Scale score (p = 0.03) and higher social interaction scores with non-family members (p = 0.0003), younger age (p = 0.04), higher number of persons in one's family social network (p = 0.017), and higher instrumental support scores (p = 0.0062). In late life mania, more social interaction with one's community appears to be associated with less severe symptoms at presentation for treatment, however, it can also be associated with slightly longer the duration of episode. Two aspects of the Duke Social Support Index are associated with a shorter episode duration prior to seeking treatment: being part of a larger family network and a having a higher level of instrumental support prior to treatment. The Instrumental Support Subscale measures the degree of assistance that is available for the respondent in performing daily tasks. These findings suggest that in older adults with BD, close social interactions and support are important in limiting the length of the illness episode prior to treatment. Social interactions involving non-family members may be less important in moderating the intensity of the symptoms at presentation.

Giraffe Helmholtz resonance

Many animal species, including elephants and okapi, use sounds above and below the range of human hearing to communicate. A longitudinal study presented here suggests giraffe produce infrasonic vocalizations using Helmholtz resonance. Recordings were made of giraffe (Giraffe camelopardalis) in controlled indoor conditions and naturalistic outdoor conditions. The portable recording and analysis system consisted of a trigger oscilloscope; DAT recorders; Nagra IV-SJ; and computers. Each signal was low-pass/high-pass filtered, and FFT and STFT were performed using PolynesiaTM real-time scrolling analysis. In controlled recordings and in naturalistic situations, two types of signals were identified: audible bursts [(11 Hz (75 dB +/− 3) to 10,500 Hz (80 dB +/− 3)] dominant frequencies between 150 and 200 Hz and covert vocalizations [(14 Hz (60 dB +/− 3) to 250–275 Hz (30 dB +/− 3)] dominant frequencies between 20 and 40 Hz. Both audible and covert signals coincided with neck throw or head toss behaviors. The shape of the giraffe’s respiratory apparatus during this behavior and the frequencies produced implicate Helmholtz resonance as a production mechanism. In naturalistic recordings, two of the five infrasonic vocalizations identified were produced during close range social interactions, suggesting that giraffe use these vocalizations to communicate with con-specifics. The social functions, air and seismic transmission mechanisms of these vocalizations should be further assessed.

Robust autumn social attributes predict spring courtship skills in juvenile female brown-headed cowbirds, Molothrus ater

Individuals often show predictable variation in social tendencies over time and across contexts. In species that rely on social interaction for the development of courtship behaviours, predictable variation in juvenile social behaviour may influence the ontogeny of courtship skills by exposing young individuals to different levels of contact with conspecifics. During the autumn and winter, brown-headed cowbirds utilize a social display known as the head-down to facilitate close social interaction with others. In this study we investigated whether head-downs rates are correlated across social contexts, and thus constitute a social temperament trait, and whether variation in head-down rates predicts subsequent courtship behaviour in juvenile cowbirds. During the autumn, we used a fission–fusion perturbation on a flock of juvenile females and males, and recorded the number of approaches and head-downs across social contexts. All individuals were then followed into the breeding season, where we recorded male singing behaviour, female chatter vocalization and consort status. We found that female head-down rates were correlated across contexts during the autumn, and that females that engaged in more head-down displays received more songs from males, responded to more songs with chatter vocalizations and were more likely to be in a consortship during the breeding season. As far as we know, this study presents the first demonstration that a social temperament trait can predict competent adult-like courtship behaviour in juvenile birds, and suggests that juvenile sociability may be an important developmental mechanism in the emergence of reproductive competence. ► We observed a flock of juvenile brown-headed cowbirds during autumn and spring of their first year. ► In autumn, we performed a fission–fusion flock perturbation to examine social behaviour across contexts. ► Females showed correlated rates of affiliative head-down displays across social contexts in autumn. ► Autumn head-down rates predicted spring courtship skills in females. ► Individual social attributes may shape the development of courtship skills in female birds.

Knowledge acquisition's mediation of social capital‐firm innovation

PurposeThis paper aims to empirically examine the mediating role of knowledge acquisition between social capital and innovation for firms located in science and technology parks (STPs).Design/methodology/approachPartial least squares offers the primary statistic technique for assessing survey data collected from 214 Spanish tenants.FindingsKnowledge acquisition fully mediates the relationship between social capital and firm innovation. Moreover, social capital at the firm level has a significant influence on both knowledge acquisition and innovation.Research limitations/implicationsFurther research should include more independent variables to understand the complex phenomenon of firm innovation.Practical implicationsTenant firms in STPs must develop strategic management tactics for their interfirm relations to acquire and exploit key resources such as knowledge. For specialized firms, close social interactions in specific contexts can enhance both knowledge acquisition and innovation to compensate for their resource constraints.Originality/valueBy demonstrating the impact of social capital on knowledge acquisition and innovation in the specific context of STPs, whose artificial environment encourages and promotes close social interactions among tenants, this article overcomes previous and contradictory findings regarding the relationship between social capital and innovation. A key element is the contingent and mediating role of knowledge acquisition. Finally, this study considers social capital at the firm level as a multidimensional, second‐order latent construct that includes structural, relational and cognitive aspects simultaneously.

Brain mechanisms for processing affective touch.

Despite the crucial role of touch in social development, there is very little functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) research on brain mechanisms underlying social touch processing. The "skin as a social organ" hypothesis is supported by the discovery of C-tactile (CT) nerves that are present in hairy skin and project to the insular cortex. CT-fibers respond specifically well to slow, gentle touch such as that which occurs during close social interactions. Given the social significance of such touch researchers have proposed that the CT-system represents an evolutionarily conserved mechanism important for normative social development. However, it is currently unknown whether brain regions other than the insula are involved in processing CT-targeted touch. In the current fMRI study, we sought to characterize the brain regions involved in the perception of CT-supported affective touch. Twenty-two healthy adults received manual brush strokes to either the arm or palm. A direct contrast of the blood-oxygenation-level-dependent (BOLD) response to gentle brushing of the arm and palm revealed the involvement of a network of brain regions, in addition to the posterior insula, during CT-targeted affective touch to the arm. This network included areas known to be involved in social perception and social cognition, including the right posterior superior temporal sulcus and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)/dorso anterior cingulate cortex (dACC). Connectivity analyses with an mPFC/dACC seed revealed coactivation with the left insula and amygdala during arm touch. These findings characterize a network of brain regions beyond the insula involved in coding CT-targeted affective touch.

The advantage of social living: Brain neuropeptides mediate the beneficial consequences of sex and motherhood

Living in social groups is clearly beneficial for many species, often resulting in increased survival, enhanced fitness of the group, and progression of brain development and cognitive abilities. The development of the social brain has been promoted on the basis (i) of activation of reward centres by social stimuli, (ii) of positive consequences of close social interactions on emotionality (which is reinforcing by itself) and on general fitness, and (iii) of negative health consequences in the absence or as a result of sudden interruption of social interactions. For example, social interactions as seen between mother and child or between mating partners have beneficial effects on the mental and physical health state, in particular on adaptive processes related to emotional and physiological stress coping in both sexes. Here, the neurobiological basis of social behaviour, in particular the involvement of the brain neuropeptides, oxytocin and prolactin, in mediating such positive health effects will be discussed.

Social networks and the foundations of oligarchy in medieval towns

Although it is widely acknowledged that urban oligarchy pre-dominated across medieval England, oligarchy's foundations are only partly known. This article argues that part of oligarchy's success derived from close social interaction between oligarchs and the rest of the citizens. A case study of social networks and arbitration within the city of Wells demonstrates how the elite insinuated themselves into the town's social web, establishing and securing their influence and power. Moreover, such a social role brought the oligarchs together often and helped to define the elite. Such power encouraged a more benevolent form of oligarchy than later prevailed.