Peanut allergy is a serious form of food allergy that can lead to anaphylactic reactions. Research has shown that the Ara h 2 allergen is immunodominant and associated with fatal systemic reactions. We determined the crystal structure of recombinant Ara h 2.0201 in a complex with the human-derived PA12P3D08 (D08) IgE Fab fragment at 3.2 Å resolution. In addition, native mass spectrometry was used to study interactions of D08 with Ara h 2 and its peptides. The structure revealed that D08 Fab binds to a long loop of Ara h 2.0201, which contains three repeated DPYSPS motifs. The immunocomplex structure illustrated how three copies of D08 Fabs can bind simultaneously to Ara h 2.0201 in close proximity. Native mass spectrometry studies of D08 Fab with Ara h 2.0201 and peptides containing 2-3 motifs demonstrated cross-linking of Ara h 2.0201 in solution and the propensity of D08 Fab to self-associate. Motif peptides from Ara h 2.0201 highlighted the importance of proline hydroxylation for binding affinity. D08 Fab also bound to hydroxyproline-containing peptides from Ara h 1 and 3. The trivalent binding is effective in forming large allergen-IgE complexes on mast cell or basophil surfaces and contributes to the potency of Ara h 2 in triggering allergic reactions and highlighting its role in anaphylaxis. Proline hydroxylation considerably enhances D08 binding affinity and contributes to cross-reactivity among Ara h 1-3 allergens.

The generality of the worldwide leaf economics spectrum (LES) has made it a pillar of trait-based ecological research. Yet, few studies have examined the processes shaping the evolution of the LES within species, in part, because most species occupy only a small portion of the LES. To address this gap, we took advantage of the distinct leaf economics strategies present in different ecotypes of the phenotypically diverse perennial grass Panicum virgatum (switchgrass) to generate a genetic mapping population, which we planted in common gardens at three sites spanning 12 degrees of latitude in the central United States. With this genetic mapping population, we evaluated two potentially interacting causes of LES evolution: 1) genetic architecture, where multiple traits are influenced by either the same gene (pleiotropy) or by genes in close physical proximity (genetic linkage), and 2) correlational selection, where selection acts on traits in combination rather than in isolation. We found that shared genetic architecture influenced covariation between photosynthetic rate (AMASS) and leaf nitrogen (NMASS) and between AMASS and leaf mass per area (LMA). We also found that correlational selection favored the trait combinations predicted by the LES (e.g., high LMA with low NMASS or low LMA with high NMASS) and disfavored other, mismatched trait combinations at two of the three sites. Together, these results demonstrate how the evolution of an integrated LES within species can arise from multiple evolutionary causes.

Efficient electrochemical water splitting is crucial for advancing hydrogen technologies, yet reverse reactions from the close proximity of hydrogen and oxygen evolution sites often hinder performance. We present a site-isolation strategy using extrusion-based 3D printing that spatially separates Ru and Ni catalysts within chitosan-derived carbon electrodes. By formulating chitosan inks with Ru-ZIF and Ni-Zn BTC precursors, we achieve precise filament-level segregation, resulting in pyrolyzed electrodes with Ru clusters and Ni nanoparticles anchored on distinct layers. This design delivers outstanding bifunctional activity, reaching 87mV for HER and 172mV for OER at 10mA cm-2, along with remarkable stability for over 700 h at 0.5 A cm-2 during HER and 1.54V at 10mA cm-2 for overall water splitting, surpassing conventional and non-isolated electrodes. In anion exchange membrane electrolyzers, the site-isolated electrodes maintain robust operation for 300 h at 0.5 A cm-2. Theoretical calculations and XAFS analysis reveal that spatially separated Ru and Ni sites exhibit localized electronic structures, which effectively lower the d-band center, enhancing hydrogen and oxygen desorption, and suppressing reverse reactions. This scalable 3D printing approach enables advanced electrocatalytic performance through device-level spatial control.

In terahertz (THz) applications, Field-effect transistors (FETs) have emerged as prime candidates for the next generation of THz and sub-THz electronics. One of the main advantages of TeraFETs over state-of-the-art commercial THz electronics based on Schottky diodes is their ability to tune the plasma frequency over a wide range via gate voltage, which adjusts the sheet carrier density (electrons or holes) in the device channel. In this paper, we demonstrate that employing a Quantum Channel (QC) design, where the back barrier is positioned in close proximity to the front barrier, resulting in a channel thickness between 1 and 10 Bohr radii, offers significant advantages for TeraFET applications. This configuration enables increasing the maximum achievable density. In electro-optics applications, the QC design provides a unique opportunity for implementing an opto-FET, where optical absorption is modulated by the gate voltage. The key advantage of the QC-HEMT is the ability to shift the absorption edge by a large energy on the order of the Fermi level by changing the sheet carrier concentration in the device channel by modulating the gate voltage and, thereby, modulating the Moss–Burstein shift, effectively altering the optical band gap sensed by incoming radiation optical radiation by an electric field. A large sheet carrier concentration achieved in QC-HEMTs allows for a much broader modulation range of plasma frequencies and facilitates frequency multiplication via nonlinear plasmonic resonance (approximately 3 times higher). A large sheet carrier concentration also facilitates frequency multiplication via nonlinear plasmonic resonance. Such nonlinear frequency rectification dramatically increasing the frequency range (up to 1 THz or even higher) at much higher achievable powers, since the power is introduced via uniform gate voltage pumping by large-area grating gate structures. For an optical QC-HEMT, a large Moss-Burstein shift makes the optical QC-HEMT design superior as an optical modulator and optical spectrometer.

The study aimed to assess the microbiological quality of the air in three barns that differed in size, housing system, and number of animals in the context of sustainable and safe food production. Air samples were collected four times a year (spring, summer, autumn, and winter) to account for seasonal variations. The abundance of selected microorganisms (mesophilic aerobic bacteria, mold fungi, actinomycetes, Staphylococcus spp. and E. coli) was determined using the impact method and appropriate microbiological media. Simultaneously, the air temperature, relative humidity, and real-time resistive sensor readings for current bioaerosols were measured in the tested rooms. Byre (III) had the lowest mean resistive sensor reading for bioaerosols, while barn (II) had the highest. The mean temperature was lowest in barn (I) and highest in barn (II). The mean relative air humidity was lowest in barn (III) and highest in barn (I). The 60 m2 barn had the highest number of microorganisms. Factors conducive to the proliferation of microorganisms in the barn included the use of deep litter, which was removed once a quarter. Additionally, storing manure in close proximity to the barn contributed to an increase in the number of microorganisms in the livestock facility. No excessive air pollution with bacteria or mold fungi was found in any of the studied barns. Overall, the study demonstrates that barn management practices, litter type, microclimatic conditions, and ventilation significantly influence airborne microbial concentrations. These findings provide practical insights for improving environmental hygiene and animal welfare in barns and promoting sustainable development in dairy cattle farming.

Abstract A numerical analysis of high-speed rarefied gas flow over a cavity has been performed using the direct simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) method. The simulation was carried out over a wide range of gas rarefaction, from free-molecular flow to nearly continuum flow, for various values of the angle of attack, the free-stream Mach number, and the geometric size of the cavity. Flow fields, streamlines, vertical 1D distributions of macroscopic quantities, and the dimensionless particle flux density to the cavity floor were calculated with high accuracy. It was found that the flow pattern in the simulated system strongly depends on all flow parameters. At a certain distance from the cavity, the gas flow passes through a detached shock, where the flow regime changes from supersonic to subsonic. In close proximity to the cavity inlet, a complex flow structure can form, such as a flow separation zone, including a recirculation zone and a reverse flow zone. Inside the cavity, a circulating motion of the gas is formed, the pattern of which is significantly influenced by the geometric size of the cavity.

The article examines the typology of motifs in the epic “Er Qosay” within the epic traditions of the Karakalpak and Kazakh peoples. The similarities in the typology of motifs in the versions of the two peoples are scientifically analyzed. The study highlights the close geographical proximity and long-standing interaction between the Karakalpak and Kazakh peoples, which has resulted in a strong interconnection of their national histories. It is demonstrated that shared historical experiences and similar events give rise to particular phenomena, which are subsequently embodied in artistic form within the epic. Since the epic was performed orally and individually by zhyrau (a traditional Kazakh epic poet-singer and oral historian) and zhyrshy (a folk epic singer and storyteller) storytellers of both peoples, the presence of personal and national characteristics is emphasized. The article also reveals the role of the leading motifs in the development of the epic’s plot.

Spin-active point defects in hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) are emerging as a promising platform for scalable quantum technologies, both as sources of single photons and as spin–photon interfaces. As a host material, h-BN can be easily integrated into quantum photonic circuits and its two-dimensional nature means defects can be in close proximity to the surface, allowing for high-resolution quantum sensing. This review summarises recent progress in the understanding and engineering of these defects, and explores their suitability to different quantum technology applications. Key outstanding challenges, such as prolonging spin coherence and developing a method of deterministic defect creation, are identified, and comparisons are made to other solid-state platforms – particularly nitrogen–vacancy centres in diamond.

Objectives: This study aims to assess the prevalence of complications and failures associated with impacted canine eruption in a specialized referral center, with the goal of identifying factors that contribute to these outcomes. Methods: This retrospective cohort study included cases of impacted canines treated at the School of Dental Medicine between 2010 and 2020. Clinical and radiographic data were collected and evaluated for failures and complications by two independent clinicians (MK, MG). In addition, specialists in oral and maxillofacial surgery and orthodontics (YM, TS, NS) independently assessed all complications and failures. Results: Among the 214 impacted maxillary canines included, 23 (10.7%) failed to erupt following initial surgical-orthodontic treatment and required re-intervention. Eruption difficulty was attributed to orthodontic factors in 43.5% of cases, surgical factors in 13.0%, and combined factors in the remainder. Following a second procedure, 15 canines erupted successfully, while 8 did not, resulting in an overall failure rate of 3.7%. Treatment failure was significantly associated with both anatomical and procedural factors. Canines with centrally positioned crowns exhibited a significantly higher failure rate than those with buccal or palatal positions (χ2 test, p = 0.025). Failure was also more common when the canine root apex was located in close proximity to a cortical plate. Lateral incisor root resorption was significantly associated with treatment complications (p = 0.030). In the multivariable logistic regression analysis, root resorption remained an independent predictor of treatment failure, increasing the odds of failure approximately fourfold (OR = 0.255, CI = 0.077-0.843, p = 0.025). Timing and surgical technique were also significantly associated with treatment outcome. Surgical exposure performed shortly after diagnosis was linked to an increased risk of treatment complications (p = 0.006). Closed surgical exposure demonstrated a significantly higher failure rate compared with open exposure (Pearson exact test, p = 0.009). Although open exposure was associated with a greater likelihood of successful eruption, it was also significantly associated with increased gingival morbidity (Fisher's test, p = 0.030). Conclusions: Failure of impacted maxillary canine eruption following combined surgical-orthodontic treatment is uncommon but is significantly associated with distinct anatomical and procedural risk factors. Central crown position, cortical plate involvement, lateral incisor root resorption, early surgical exposure, and the use of closed exposure techniques all increase the likelihood of treatment failure and complications. Although open exposure enhances the probability of successful eruption, it may also negatively affect gingival outcomes, underscoring the need for individualized, multidisciplinary treatment planning.

Our understanding of the viability of primates in anthropogenically fragmented habitats is undermined by the long timeframes for the effects of fragmentation to manifest. Studying primates in natural forest islands can better reveal the limits to habitat viability in the face of fragmentation. We present a study of a group of Azara's owl monkeys (Aotus azarae) occupying a 0.53ha forest "island", the smallest such forest island and territory ever documented for the genus Aotus. We radio collared one individual and then, for ten months, collected ecological and behavioural data on the island and the group (123 scans, 44 observation days). We also collected forest structure data on the island. While the group did successfully establish itself on the island, the pair did not have an offspring during the birth season. The pair predominantly engaged in resting behaviour in close proximity to each other. Furthermore, the adult male of the group was characterised by eye deformities and bodily injuries, and eventually died nine months after we identified him. These results suggest that, while the forest island may be habitable in the short term, it may not have been sufficient for the long-term survival and reproduction. We propose that this forest island could act as a population sink, where individuals that are not competitive in the highly saturated gallery forest can reside temporarily. Our study shows the importance of considering not only presence/absence, but also behaviour and life history to consider the effects of forest island viability, especially in the face of future scenarios of anthropogenic fragmentation.

The Kohistani population of northern Pakistan, an understudied group with distinct geographic, ethnic, and cultural characteristics, presents a unique opportunity to explore genetic diversity in South Asia. We analyzed 21 autosomal STR loci in 200 unrelated Kohistani males using the GlobalFiler™ PCR Amplification Kit, identifying 329 distinct allele combinations with allele frequencies ranging from 0.0025 to 0.2975. Forensic parameters revealed high informativeness, with a combined power of discrimination (CPD) of 0.999999999999999999999999999999378 and a combined power of exclusion (CPE) of 0.9999336, though loci like TPOX showed reduced diversity (GD: 0.7389, Ho: 0.545) compared to Pashtuns (GD: 0.73–0.92) and Punjabis (GD: 0.75–0.95), reflecting endogamy. After sequential Bonferroni correction, no significant deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium were detected, but initial deviations and linkage disequilibrium in 16 locus pairs suggest genetic drift, similar to patterns in Baloch populations. Analyses of genetic distances, multi-dimensional scaling (MDS), principal component analysis (PCA), STRUCTURE, and phylogenetic trees showed a genetic affinity between the Kohistani population and neighboring South Asian populations. This genetic connection aligns with linguistic, ethnic, and geographical classifications, placing Kohistani in close proximity to populations like Punjabi, Pashtuns, and Bangladeshi, reflecting shared ancestry and regional gene flow. These findings highlight Kohistani’s genetic structure, shaped by isolation and endogamy, and contribute to understanding South Asian genetic diversity.

We analyze the degradation of the C60 fullerene under the action of hypochlorite (ClO-). The ClO- anion, produced by the human myeloperoxidase (hMPO) enzyme, is highly reactive and known for destroying bacteria and degrading nanostructured materials. In particular, previous studies show that hMPO can biodegrade nC60 nanoparticles in a short time, with hypochlorite playing a key role, though the exact mechanism is still unknown. In this work, we use density functional theory (DFT) calculations to investigate ClO- adsorption on water-covered fullerenes. We find that there is a strong tendency of hypochlorite to dissociate rather than remain molecularly adsorbed near the hydrated C60 surface. As a consequence of this reaction, the fullerene cage can be oxidized through the adsorption of carbonyl, epoxy, molecular O2, and ClO groups preferentially located in close proximity on the carbon network, while individual chloride ions remain hydrated and stabilized in the aqueous environment. The formation of domains of chemisorbed oxygen species, as reported here, reduces the number of C═C double bonds in the cage, thereby decreasing the structural stability of C60. Chlorination of the carbon surface is not energetically favored following ClO- bond cleavage. Most interestingly, our calculations reveal that the oxidation of the fullerene surface is frequently accompanied by the breaking of C-C bonds beneath the oxidized regions, resulting in hole formation in the carbon cage. We performed simulations of NMR, UV-vis, and ECD spectroscopies, which reveal well-defined spectral features that could be very helpful in identifying the structural transformations and chemical composition reported here for these nanosized carbon materials. According to our proposed atomistic mechanism, the dissociative adsorption of hypochlorite at various regions on the carbon network, along with the formation of molecular islands composed of oxidizing species, may lead to a generalized porous morphology of the cage consistent with experimental observations of significant structural transformations in hMPO exposed C60 solutions.

Abstract Tropopause polar vortices (TPVs) are sub-synoptic, long-lived, closed circulation features located in the upper-troposphere and lower-stratosphere. Most previous studies focused only on cyclonic TPVs (CTPVs), especially due to their direct influence on Arctic cyclones, cold air outbreaks, and severe convection in middle latitudes. CTPV longevity is unique to polar regions due to the relatively limited role of latent heating and the more dominant role of longwave radiative cooling. CTPVs are also important to global circulations, as recent studies have shown that CTPVs can exit the Arctic, causing the initiation of Rossby wave packets on the polar jet. Rossby wave initiation and subsequent Rossby wave breaks (RWBs) and blocking patterns cause high-impact weather, from droughts and floods to heatwaves and cold air outbreaks. However, current models have low skill when forecasting the impacts of blocking patterns in the sub-seasonal to seasonal timeframe. This study aims to determine if anticyclonic TPVs (ATPVs) have the same unique longevity as CTPVs. ATPVs’ lifecycles are also examined to determine their possible connection to RWBs and the maintenance of blocking patterns. It is hypothesized that ATPVs form from poleward RWBs and are important potential vorticity anomalies aiding in the maintenance of blocks. ERA5 data are used to create ATPV and block tracks. Results show that the most common ATPV genesis regions also have high RWB and blocking frequencies. Blocks with multiple ATPVs in close spatial proximity have longer lifetimes than those without.

Pharyngoesophageal diverticula (PED) are uncommon hypopharyngeal outpouchings that may mimic thyroid nodules because of their close anatomic proximity to the thyroid gland. We describe two cases in which PED presented as thyroid nodules and resulted in atypical cytological findings. The first case was a 56-year-old man, who presented with hoarseness and chronic cough. Ultrasonography showed a heterogeneous hypoechoic nodule, and fine-needle aspiration (FNA) revealed benign squamous cells, food debris, inflammatory cells, and microorganisms, supporting the diagnosis of a PED. The second case was a 61-year-old man with chronic throat discomfort and an incidental neck mass initially suspected to be a benign thyroid nodule. Repeated FNA cytology consistently demonstrated benign squamous cells without thyroid follicular cells or colloid, and imaging correlation suggested a PED. These cases highlight the importance of correlating cytological and imaging findings when assessing presumed thyroid nodules to prevent misdiagnosis and unnecessary thyroid surgeries.

Bronchial premalignant lesions (PML), precursors of lung squamous cell carcinoma, have distinct molecular subtypes. The proliferative subtype, enriched with bronchial dysplasia, had decreased expression of an antigen-processing/presentation gene coexpression module in progressive/persistent versus regressive PMLs, suggesting a functional impact of these genes on immune evasion. In this study, we performed miRNA sequencing, miRNA in situ hybridization, and spatial proteomics of bronchial biopsies from patients at high risk for lung cancer. An miRNA-gene network analysis identified hsa-miR-149-5p as a potential regulator of the antigen presentation gene module. Staining on adjacent biopsy tissue showed that hsa-miR-149-5p was predominantly expressed in the epithelium and upregulated in progressive/persistent proliferative lesions. Targets of this miRNA, the transcriptional coactivator of MHC-I gene expression, NLRC5, and the genes it regulates, were downregulated in these lesions. Decreased NLRC5 expression reduced both IFNγ-induced MHC-I surface expression and CD8 T-cell cytotoxicity in lung squamous cancer cells. In PMLs, basal cells with high levels of NLRC5 were in close spatial proximity to CD8 T cells, suggesting that these cells exhibit increased functional MHC-I gene expression in vivo. These findings indicate a functional role for hsa-miR-149-5p in PML progression/persistence and suggest this axis as a potential therapeutic target for PML immunomodulation.

Oroantral communications (OACs) are frequently iatrogenic, most commonly occurring after the extraction of maxillary posterior teeth in close proximity to the maxillary sinus. They may also result from tumor surgery, implant placement, trauma, or orthognathic surgery involving the maxilla. An untreated OAC creates a pathological communication between the oral cavity and the maxillary sinus, often leading to maxillary sinusitis and a significant deterioration in the patient’s quality of life. Numerous surgical techniques have been described for the management of OACs, ranging from mucosal flap procedures to the use of bone substitutes or highly conservative alternative methods. However, recurrence after treatment has been reported, and selecting the most appropriate technique according to the clinical situation remains challenging. This study aims to highlight the usefulness of a pedicled buccal fat pad flap in the reconstruction of oroantral communications.

Building materials are a vital resource for humans due to their widespread distribution throughout the world and their close proximity to local residents. A study of exposure levels to natural radioactivity in earth bricks was conducted in the coastal region of Côte d'Ivoire to assess the effects on the health of the population. To achieve this objective, it was necessary to collect samples of earth bricks for measurement of primordial radionuclide concentrations by gamma spectrometry (GeHP) in the laboratory. This study is the first at the national level to study the radioactivity of earth bricks. The risks were assessed through radiological risk indices, based on the measured activities of natural radionuclides in the samples. The mean activity concentration ranges of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K were 4.11-11.13 Bq.kg-1, 3.10-10.18 Bq.kg-1, and 23.67-266.49 Bq.kg-1, with mean values of 8 Bq.kg-1, 5 Bq.kg-1 and 130 Bq.kg-1, respectively. All mean values of the health risk indices (Raeq, Dex, Din, AGDE, and AED) were below the limits recommended by ICRP/UNSCEAR. This result indicates moderate exposure for the population, with no significant short-term impact, but should be monitored in the event of prolonged accumulation. The results of this original study provide new information on the radioactivity of building materials in Côte d'Ivoire and worldwide.

Rock burst accidents induced by mutual mining–excavation disturbances occur frequently in deep coal mines, especially when multiple working faces operate in close proximity. This study systematically investigates the interactive feedback mechanism between static and dynamic loads and the resulting rock burst initiation. Key findings include: Roadways are more susceptible to rock burst under mining disturbance compared to working faces. The relative distance between working faces critically influences the intensity and scope of dynamic instability. A safety distance for opposing mining faces is derived based on elastic–plastic superposition principles. Using the Bessel function expansion method, the mechanical response of anchored roadways under composite seismic sources is analyzed. The results indicated that stress intensity under combined P- and S-waves is significantly enhanced compared to single-source scenarios. A rock burst initiation criterion based on the minimum energy principle is proposed, leading to a targeted strategy for source-specific load reduction. This study provides a theoretical foundation for controlling rock burst induced by mining interactions.

Economic gas recovery from shale reservoirs is inherently difficult because of the extremely low permeability of these formations. To overcome this challenge, horizontal wells are drilled and subjected to multi-stage hydraulic fracturing treatments, which generate high-conductivity flow pathways. The adoption of these technologies has significantly boosted the economic recovery of gas from shale formations, particularly the Marcellus Shale, which stands as the most productive shale gas play in the United States. The effectiveness of a fracturing treatment in enabling economic gas production from shale reservoirs is governed by the characteristics of the fractures it creates. The propagation of initial fracture, during multi-stage hydraulic fracturing, modifies the initial stress conditions in the surrounding area, commonly referred to as a “stress shadow.” The stress shadow restricts the initiation and subsequent propagation of later fracture stages, leading to the development of less favorable fracture properties. As a result, the uneven contribution of individual fracture stages to gas flow ultimately diminishes overall gas recovery from the horizontal well. For efficient gas drainage from the shale, the fracture stages are often closely spaced. When fracture stages are placed in close proximity, the stress shadow effect can be intensified. Thus, accounting for the stress shadow is essential in the design of hydraulic fracture treatments. This study investigates how fracture spacing, injected fluid volume, and fluid type influence the magnitude of the stress shadow effect, its impact on fracture properties, and the resulting gas recovery from the Marcellus Shale. The goal is to facilitate the optimization of the hydraulic fracture design to mitigate the stress shadow impact and enhance gas production. Data from several Marcellus Shale horizontal wells, along with published findings, were compiled and analyzed to determine the petrophysical and geomechanical characteristics of the formation. These results were then used to construct a reservoir model representative of a Marcellus Shale horizontal well. Fracture properties, altered by the stress shadow, were assessed through hydraulic fracturing simulations and incorporated into the model. Ultimately, the reservoir model was employed to predict the production performance. The results of the investigation confirmed that close stage spacing intensifies the impact of the stress shadow. The stress shadow was found to impair fracture conductivity which negatively impacted gas recovery. The negative impact of the stress shadow on gas recovery was observed to gradually diminish as the production rate declined over time. The volume and type of the fluid injected during fracturing treatment can amplify the stress shadow’s impact.

Cold stress is a significant welfare concern for piglets, particularly in outdoor housing systems where the ambient climate cannot be controlled. To deal with cold stress, piglets engage in heat-inducing behaviours, such as maintaining proximity to the sow, however this is a major risk factor for overlays. This research examined the effect of outdoor farrowing hut temperature on piglet survival and behaviour and found that lowered hut temperatures led to increased pre-weaning mortality. Two hundred sows and their litters were studied over six time replicates during winter in Australia at a commercial outdoor piggery. As daily minimum hut temperature decreased, piglet mortality increased on the first day of life, and across days one to four of life, but not from five days onwards. As hut temperature decreased, piglets were more likely to be shivering, huddling in one group, and resting in physical contact with the sow. However, contrary to expectations, there was no evidence of a relationship between piglet-sow proximity and piglet deaths, suggesting that being in close proximity to the sow did not increase the risk of dying. It may be that cold exposure reduces piglet mobility and thus the chance for piglets to avoid being crushed, but this requires further examination. Overall, cold stress is clearly a significant piglet welfare and productivity concern leading to increased mortality even when considering more moderate Australian climates.