Human Cytomegalovirus Clinical Isolates Research Articles

The Human Cytomegalovirus vGPCR UL33 is Essential for Efficient Lytic Replication in Epithelial Cells.

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a β-herpesvirus which is ubiquitous in the human population. HCMV has the largest genome of all known human herpesviruses, and thus encodes a large array of proteins that affect pathogenesis in different cell types. Given the large genome and the ability of HCMV to replicate in a range of cells, investigators have begun to identify viral proteins required for cell type-specific replication. There are four proteins encoded in the HCMV genome that are homologous to human G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs); these viral-encoded GPCRs (vGPCRs) are UL33, UL78, US27, and US28. In the current study, we find that deletion of all four vGPCR genes from a clinical isolate of HCMV severely attenuates lytic replication in both primary human salivary gland epithelial cells, as well as ARPE-19 retinal epithelial cells as evidenced by significant decreases in immediate early gene expression and virus production. Deletion of UL33 from the HCMV genome also results in a failure to efficiently replicate in epithelial cells, and this defect is manifested by decreased levels of immediate early, early, and late gene expression, as well as reduced viral production. We find that similar to US28, UL33 constitutively activates Gαq-dependent PLC-β signaling to high levels in these epithelial cells. We also find that UL33 transcription is more complicated than originally believed, and there is the potential for the virus to utilize various 5' UTRs to create novel UL33 proteins that are all capable of constitutive Gαq signaling. Taken together, these studies suggest that UL33 driven signaling is important for lytic HCMV replication in cells of epithelial origin.

A Virus Genetic System to Analyze the Fusogenicity of Human Cytomegalovirus Glycoprotein B Variants.

Viruses can induce the fusion of infected and neighboring cells, leading to the formation of syncytia. Cell-cell fusion is mediated by viral fusion proteins on the plasma membrane of infected cells that interact with cellular receptors on neighboring cells. Viruses use this mechanism to spread rapidly to adjacent cells or escape host immunity. For some viruses, syncytium formation is a hallmark of infection and a known pathogenicity factor. For others, the role of syncytium formation in viral dissemination and pathogenicity remains poorly understood. Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in transplant patients and the leading cause of congenital infections. Clinical HCMV isolates have broad cell tropism but differ in their ability to induce cell-cell fusions, and little is known about the molecular determinants. We developed a system to analyze HCMV glycoprotein B (gB) variants in a defined genetic background. HCMV strains TB40/E and TR were used as vectors to compare the fusogenicity of six gB variants from congenitally infected fetuses with those from three laboratory strains. Five of them conferred the ability to induce the fusion of MRC-5 human embryonic lung fibroblasts to one or both backbone strains, as determined by a split GFP-luciferase reporter system. The same gB variants were not sufficient to induce syncytia in infected ARPE-19 epithelial cells, suggesting that additional factors are involved. The system described here allows a systematic comparison of the fusogenicity of viral envelope glycoproteins and may help to clarify whether fusion-promoting variants are associated with increased pathogenicity.

Broad-spectrum antiviral diazadispiroalkane core molecules block attachment and cell-to-cell spread of herpesviruses

Regarding the problems with the current available drugs many research studies deal with the class of the dispirotripiperazine (DSTP)-based compounds. These are small molecules consisting of polycyclic saturated ring systems with positively charged nitrogen atoms. These compounds can interact with negatively charged HSPGs and thus block viral attachment. In a previous paper by Adfeldt et al. (2021), we have shown that the diazadispiroalkane derivatives 11826091 and 11826236 exhibit dose-dependent antiviral activity against human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and pseudorabies virus (PrV). In the present study, these two small molecules are evaluated against two other herpesvirus species, murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) and herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), as well as a HCMV clinical isolate. They exhibit potent antiherpetic activity against these herpesviruses with a high selectivity index. The low cytotoxicity was underlined by the LD50 determination in mice. We have shown that inhibition occurs at an early stage of infection. Interestingly, 11826091 and 11826236 reduced immediate early gene expression in HCMV and HSV-1 infected cells in a dose-dependent manner. Both small molecules probably interact electrostatically with sulfated glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) of proteoglycans on target cells resulting in blockage of adsorption sites for herpesvirus glycoprotein. Moreover, both compounds showed significant effects against the cell-associated viral spread of HSV-1 and HCMV. Overall, this study shows that 11826091 and 11826236 represent two promising candidates for a new approach of a broad antiviral therapy.

In vitro activity of letermovir against human cytomegalovirus isolates with different drug susceptibility phenotypes

Letermovir (LTV) is approved for the prophylaxis of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection in adult seropositive recipients of an allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant. Here, we report on the in vitro activity of LTV against a large panel of clinical HCMV isolates and recombinant viruses with different drug susceptibility phenotypes to currently-approved DNA polymerase inhibitors or maribavir. No pre-existing mutations conferring resistance to LTV were detected by Sanger sequencing in clinical HCMV isolates susceptible or resistant to DNA polymerases inhibitors. The susceptibility of LTV against the different recombinant HCMV mutants with amino acid substitutions in the UL97 kinase or in the UL54 DNA polymerase was similar to that of the wild type virus. LTV was also effective against recombinant HCMV harboring UL97 mutations conferring resistance to maribavir.

Transmission of cell-associated human cytomegalovirus isolates between various cell types using polymorphonuclear leukocytes as a vehicle

Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) are regarded as vehicles for the hematogenous dissemination of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). In cell culture, this concept has been validated with cell-free laboratory strains but not yet with clinical HCMV isolates that grow strictly cell-associated. We, therefore, aimed to evaluate whether PMNs can also transmit such isolates from initially infected fibroblasts to other cell types, which might further clarify the role of PMNs in HCMV dissemination and provide a model to search for potential inhibitors. PMNs, which have been isolated from HCMV-seronegative individuals, were added for 3 h to fibroblasts infected with recent cell-associated HCMV isolates, then removed and transferred to various recipient cell cultures. The transfer efficiency in the recipient cultures was evaluated by immunofluorescence staining of viral immediate early antigens. Soluble derivatives of the cellular HCMV entry receptor PDGFRα were analyzed for their potential to interfere with this transfer. All of five tested HCMV isolates could be transferred to fibroblasts, endothelial and epithelial cells with transfer rates ranging from 2 to 9%, and the transferred viruses could spread focally in these recipient cells within 1 week. The PDGFRα-derived peptides IK40 and GT40 reduced transfer by 40 and 70% when added during the uptake step. However, when added during the transfer step, only IK40 was effective, inhibiting transmission by 20% on endothelial cells and 50–60% on epithelial cells and fibroblasts. These findings further corroborate the assumption of cell-associated HCMV dissemination by PMNs and demonstrate that it is possible to inhibit this transmission mode.

Genetic Variability of Human Cytomegalovirus Clinical Isolates Correlates With Altered Expression of Natural Killer Cell-Activating Ligands and IFN-γ.

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection often leads to systemic disease in immunodeficient patients and congenitally infected children. Despite its clinical significance, the exact mechanisms contributing to HCMV pathogenesis and clinical outcomes have yet to be determined. One of such mechanisms involves HCMV-mediated NK cell immune response, which favors viral immune evasion by hindering NK cell-mediated cytolysis. This process appears to be dependent on the extent of HCMV genetic variation as high levels of variability in viral genes involved in immune escape have an impact on viral pathogenesis. However, the link between viral genome variations and their functional effects has so far remained elusive. Thus, here we sought to determine whether inter-host genetic variability of HCMV influences its ability to modulate NK cell responses to infection. For this purpose, five HCMV clinical isolates from a previously characterized cohort of pediatric patients with confirmed HCMV congenital infection were evaluated by next-generation sequencing (NGS) for genetic polymorphisms, phylogenetic relationships, and multiple-strain infection. We report variable levels of genetic characteristics among the selected clinical strains, with moderate variations in genome regions associated with modulation of NK cell functions. Remarkably, we show that different HCMV clinical strains differentially modulate the expression of several ligands for the NK cell-activating receptors NKG2D, DNAM-1/CD226, and NKp30. Specifically, the DNAM-1/CD226 ligand PVR/CD155 appears to be predominantly upregulated by fast-replicating (“aggressive”) HCMV isolates. On the other hand, the NGK2D ligands ULBP2/5/6 are downregulated regardless of the strain used, while other NK cell ligands (i.e., MICA, MICB, ULBP3, Nectin-2/CD112, and B7-H6) are not significantly modulated. Furthermore, we show that IFN-γ; production by NK cells co-cultured with HCMV-infected fibroblasts is directly proportional to the aggressiveness of the HCMV clinical isolates employed. Interestingly, loss of NK cell-modulating genes directed against NK cell ligands appears to be a common feature among the “aggressive” HCMV strains, which also share several gene variants across their genomes. Overall, even though further studies based on a higher number of patients would offer a more definitive scenario, our findings provide novel mechanistic insights into the impact of HCMV genetic variability on NK cell-mediated immune responses.

Role of Envelope Glycoprotein Complexes in Cell-Associated Spread of Human Cytomegalovirus.

The role of viral envelope glycoproteins, particularly the accessory proteins of trimeric and pentameric gH/gL-complexes, in cell-associated spread of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is unclear. We aimed to investigate their contribution in the context of HCMV variants that grow in a strictly cell-associated manner. In the genome of Merlin pAL1502, the glycoproteins gB, gH, gL, gM, and gN were deleted by introducing stop codons, and the mutants were analyzed for viral growth. Merlin and recent HCMV isolates were compared by quantitative immunoblotting for expression of accessory proteins of the trimeric and pentameric gH/gL-complexes, gO and pUL128. Isolates were treated with siRNAs against gO and pUL128 and analyzed regarding focal growth and release of infectious virus. All five tested glycoproteins were essential for growth of Merlin pAL1502. Compared with this model virus, higher gO levels were measured in recent isolates of HCMV, and its knockdown decreased viral growth. Knockdown of pUL128 abrogated the strict cell-association and led to release of infectivity, which allowed cell-free transfer to epithelial cells where the virus grew again strictly cell-associated. We conclude that both trimer and pentamer contribute to cell-associated spread of recent clinical HCMV isolates and downregulation of pentamer can release infectious virus into the supernatant.

Molecular and Phylogenetic Characteristics of Cytomegaloviruses Isolated from Children in Nizhny Novgorod

Introduction: Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is a serious problem of modern health care. It belongs to the category of socially significant infections and is characterized by polymorphism of clinical manifestations and high child mortality. Abroad, much attention is paid to virus genotyping, determining the role of various genotypes in the development of certain clinical forms of CMV infection, and developing a vaccine against congenital human cytomegalovirus infection. The objective of our study was to assess the genetic diversity of cytomegaloviruses in children of Nizhny Novgorod. Materials and methods: We analyzed clinical CMV isolates from body fluid samples (blood, urine, and saliva), viral DNA and its fragments in 580 children aged from 15 days to 16 years. Molecular biology (PCR, RT-PCR, and sequencing), bioinformatics and statistical methods were applied in the study. Results: We established that CMV detection rates in children varied from 3.8 % to 18.9 % depending on the form of the disease. We assessed various method approaches to genotyping human cytomegalovirus clinical isolates, were first to determine prevalent gB1, gB2, and gN4a CMV genotypes in children in the Russian Federation, and revealed infected cases caused by two and three genotypes simultaneously. The phylogenetic analysis of UL55 and UL73 gene sequences indicates genetic diversity of Russian CMV isolates from children in the Nizhny Novgorod Region. Conclusions: New data on the prevalence of various CMV genotypes in children living in Nizhny Novgorod may be used in the system of epidemiological surveillance of cytomegalovirus infection while the results of genotyping and phylogenetic analysis of clinical CMV isolates may contribute to domestic vaccine development.

The antifungal drug isavuconazole inhibits the replication of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and acts synergistically with anti-HCMV drugs

We recently reported that some clinically approved antifungal drugs are potent inhibitors of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). Here, we report the broad-spectrum activity against HCMV of isavuconazole (ICZ), a new extended-spectrum triazolic antifungal drug. ICZ inhibited the replication of clinical isolates of HCMV as well as strains resistant to the currently available DNA polymerase inhibitors. The antiviral activity of ICZ against HCMV could be linked to the inhibition of human cytochrome P450 51 (hCYP51), an enzyme whose activity we previously demonstrated to be required for productive HCMV infection. Moreover, time-of-addition studies indicated that ICZ might have additional inhibitory effects during the first phase of HCMV replication. Importantly, ICZ showed synergistic antiviral activity in vitro when administered in combination with different approved anti-HCMV drugs at clinically relevant doses. Together, these results pave the way to possible future clinical studies aimed at evaluating the repurposing potential of ICZ in the treatment of HCMV-associated diseases.

HCMV infection induces AD pathology in astrocytes in vitro

AbstractBackgroundInfectious agents have long been suspected to be risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Some studies have identified a link between neurotropic viruses and AD. While these studies demonstrated an association between AD and neuroviruses, most do not establish a causal link. However, many AD pathological hallmarks, including beta amyloid plaques (Aβ), astrogliosis, neuroinflammation, and neuronal damage, overlap with pathologies caused by neuroviruses. Approximately 80% of adults are seropositive for human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), a virus that is neuroinvasive, productively infects brain cells, and is immune‐dominant in aging populations. Using post‐mortem tissues from the Rush Alzheimer’s Disease Center we previously reported that HCMV infection is associated with AD clinical markers. In the present study, we assessed the ability of HCMV infection to induce two AD pathological hallmarks in astrocytes: Aβ production and astrocyte reactivity.MethodTo determine the impact of HCMV infection on astrocytes, we generated low‐passage clinical HCMV isolates for infection of human fetal astrocytes (HFA) and astroglioma (U251) cells. To assess the ability of HCMV to produce Aβ, we infected HFAs and U251s with HCMV for 3‐9 days then immunostained for Aβ and HCMV proteins. To test whether HCMV infection results in astrocyte reactivity, we infected HFAs with HCMV for 5 days then quantified levels of reactivity‐associated transcripts via quantitative PCR.ResultHFA and U251 infected cells showed HCMV cytopathic effects characteristic of permissive cells, including enlargement and plaque formation. HCMV infection of HFA and U251 cells induced the expression of Aβ as observed by co‐staining of Aβ and HCMV proteins. Aβ production was observed within 3 days and persisted until at least 9 days post‐infection. To assess the amyloidogenicity of HCMV, we employed the Waltz algorithm, which predicted two amyloidogenic sequences within immunodominant HCMV proteins pp65 and IE1 (average score: 98.3). Further, HCMV infection of HFAs mediated a 2‐ to 4‐ fold induction in CXCL10, CD44, and IRGM, reactivity‐associated genes also involved in immune and inflammatory pathways.ConclusionOur data demonstrate that HCMV infection can contribute to AD pathology in cultured astrocytes. These findings could ultimately inform the use of antiviral therapy to prevent and/or reduce AD severity.

Association of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) neutralizing antibodies with antibodies to the HCMV glycoprotein complexes

BackgroundHuman cytomegalovirus (HCMV) causes asymptomatic infections, but also causes congenital infections when women were infected with HCMV during pregnancy, and life-threatening diseases in immunocompromised patients. To better understand the mechanism of the neutralization activity against HCMV, the association of HCMV NT antibody titers was assessed with the antibody titers against each glycoprotein complex (gc) of HCMV.MethodsSera collected from 78 healthy adult volunteers were used. HCMV Merlin strain and HCMV clinical isolate strain 1612 were used in the NT assay with the plaque reduction assay, in which both the MRC-5 fibroblasts cells and the RPE-1 epithelial cells were used. Glycoprotein complex of gB, gH/gL complexes (gH/gL/gO and gH/gL/UL128–131A [PC]) and gM/gN were selected as target glycoproteins. 293FT cells expressed with gB, gM/gN, gH/gL/gO, or PC, were prepared and used for the measurement of the antibody titers against each gc in an indirect immunofluorescence assay (IIFA). The correlation between the IIFA titers to each gc and the HCMV-NT titers was evaluated.ResultsThere were no significant correlations between gB-specific IIFA titers and the HCMV-NT titers in epithelial cells or between gM/gN complex-specific IIFA titers and the HCMV-NT titers. On the other hand, there was a statistically significant positive correlation between the IIFA titers to gH/gL complexes and HCMV-NT titers.ConclusionsThe data suggest that the gH/gL complexes might be the major target to induce NT activity against HCMV.

Immunization with Human Cytomegalovirus Core Fusion Machinery and Accessory Envelope Proteins Elicit Strong Synergistic Neutralizing Activities.

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) core fusion machinery proteins gB and gH/gL, and accessory proteins UL128/UL130/UL131A, are the key envelope proteins that mediate HCMV entry into and infection of host cells. To determine whether these HCMV envelope proteins could elicit neutralizing activities synergistically, we immunized rabbits with individual or various combinations of these proteins adsorbed to aluminum hydroxide mixed with CpG-ODN. We then analyzed serum neutralizing activities with multiple HCMV laboratory strains and clinical isolates. HCMV trimeric gB and gH/gL elicited high and moderate titers of HCMV neutralizing activity, respectively. HCMV gB in combination with gH/gL elicited up to 17-fold higher HCMV neutralizing activities compared to the sum of neutralizing activity elicited by the individual proteins analyzed with both fibroblasts and epithelial cells. HCMV gB+gH/gL+UL128/UL130/UL131A in combination increased the neutralizing activity up to 32-fold compared to the sum of neutralizing activities elicited by the individual proteins analyzed with epithelial cells. Adding UL128/UL130/UL131A to gB and gH/gL combination did not increase further the HCMV neutralizing activity analyzed with fibroblasts. These data suggest that the combination of HCMV core fusion machinery envelope proteins gB+gH/gL or the combination of gB and pentameric complex could be ideal vaccine candidates that would induce optimal immune responses against HCMV infection.

Identification and characterization of a novel group of natural anti-sense transcripts from RNA1.2 gene locus of human cytomegalovirus.

Background:Natural anti-sense transcripts (NATs), which are transcribed from the complementary DNA strand of annotated genes, exert regulatory function of gene expression. Increasing studies recognized anti-sense transcription widespread throughout human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) genome, whereas the anti-sense transcription of RNA1.2 gene locus has never been investigated. In this study, the transcription of the RNA1.2 anti-sense strand was investigated in clinically isolated HCMV strain.Methods:Strand-specific high-through RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) was performed to find possible anti-sense transcripts (ASTs). For analyzing and visualization of RNA-seq data sets, Integrative Genomics Viewer software was applied. To confirm these possibilities, Northern blotting and rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) were used.Results:Transcription of the opposite strand of RNA1.2 gene locus was detected by RNA-sequencing using RNAs extracted from human embryonic lung fibroblasts infected with HCMV clinical isolate HAN. At least three HCMV NATs, named RNA1.2 AST 1, RNA1.2 AST2, and RNA1.2 AST3, were characterized by Northern blotting and RACE analyses. These RNA1.2 ASTs orientated from the complementary strand of RNA1.2 locus during the late phase of HCMV infection. The 5′- and 3′-termini of these transcripts were located within the opposite sequence of the predicted RNA1.2 gene.Conclusion:A cluster of novel NATs was transcribed from the opposite sequence of the HCMV RNA1.2 gene region.

Large-Scale Screening of HCMV-Seropositive Blood Donors Indicates that HCMV Effectively Escapes from Antibodies by Cell-Associated Spread.

Immunoglobulins are only moderately effective for the treatment of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infections, possibly due to ineffectiveness against cell-associated virus spread. To overcome this limitation, we aimed to identify individuals with exceptional antibodies in their plasma that can efficiently block the cell-associated spread of HCMV. A Gaussia luciferase-secreting mutant of the cell-associated HCMV strain Merlin was generated, and luciferase activity evaluated as a readout for the extent of cell-associated focal spread. This reporter virus-based assay was then applied to screen plasma samples from 8400 HCMV-seropositive individuals for their inhibitory effect, including direct-acting antiviral drugs as positive controls. None of the plasmas reduced virus spread to the level of these controls. Even the top-scoring samples that partially reduced luciferase activity in the screening assay failed to inhibit focal growth when reevaluated with a more accurate, immunofluorescence-based assay. Selected sera with high neutralizing capacity against free viruses were analyzed separately, and none of them prevented the focal spread of three recent clinical HCMV isolates nor reduced the number of particles transmitted, as demonstrated with a fluorescent Merlin mutant. We concluded that donors with cell-to-cell-spread-inhibiting plasma are nonexistent or extremely rare, emphasizing cell-associated spread as a highly efficient immune escape mechanism of HCMV.

The transcriptome of human mammary epithelial cells infected with the HCMV-DB strain displays oncogenic traits

Increasing evidence indicates that human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) populations under the influence of host environment, can either be stable or rapidly differentiating, leading to tissue compartment colonization. We isolated previously from a 30-years old pregnant woman, a clinical isolate of HCMV, that we refered to as the HCMV-DB strain (accession number KT959235). The HCMV-DB clinical isolate demonstrated its ability to infect primary macrophages and to upregulate the proto-oncogene Bcl-3. We observed in this study that the genome of HCMV-DB strain is close to the genomes of other primary clinical isolates including the Toledo and the JP strains with the later having been isolated from a glandular tissue, the prostate. Using a phylogenetic analysis to compare the genes involved in virus entry, we observed that the HCMV-DB strain is close to the HCMV strain Merlin, the prototype HCMV strain. HCMV-DB infects human mammary epithelial cells (HMECs) which in turn display a ER−/PR−/HER2− phenotype, commonly refered to as triple negative. The transcriptome of HCMV-DB-infected HMECs presents the characteristics of a pro-oncogenic cellular environment with upregulated expression of numerous oncogenes, enhanced activation of pro-survival genes, and upregulated markers of cell proliferation, stemcellness and epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) that was confirmed by enhanced cellular proliferation and tumorsphere formation in vitro. Taken together our data indicate that some clinical isolates could be well adapted to the mammary tissue environment, as it is the case for the HCMV-DB strain. This could influence the viral fitness, ultimately leading to breast cancer development.

Novel trimeric human cytomegalovirus glycoprotein B elicits a high-titer neutralizing antibody response

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a major cause of disability in congenitally infected infants and in the immunosuppressed. There is currently no licensed prophylactic HCMV vaccine. The HCMV envelope glycoprotein B (gB) is considered a major vaccine target antigen based on its critical role in mediating viral-host cell fusion and thus viral entry. The natural conformation of HCMV gB within the viral envelope is a trimer, but there has been no reported success in producing a recombinant trimeric gB suitable for vaccine use. Phase II clinical trials of a monomeric recombinant gB protein demonstrated 50% efficacy in preventing HCMV infection in seronegative women of reproductive age, and in reducing viremia in solid organ transplantation recipients. We now report the production of a uniformly trimeric recombinant HCMV gB protein in Chinese ovary cells, as demonstrated by Western blot analysis under modified non-reducing conditions and size exclusion chromatography with multi-angle scattering. Immunization of mice with trimeric HCMV gB induced up to 11-fold higher serum titers of total gB-specific IgG relative to monomeric HCMV gB using Alum + CpG as adjuvants. Further, trimeric HCMV gB elicited 50-fold higher complement-independent and 20-fold higher complement-dependent HCMV neutralizing titers compared to monomeric HCMV gB using the fibroblast cell line, MRC-5, and up to 6-fold higher complement-independent and –dependent HCMV neutralizing titers using the epithelial cell line, ARPE-19. The markedly enhanced HCMV neutralizing activity in response to trimeric HCMV gB was also observed using an additional four distinct clinical HCMV isolates. These data support a role for trimeric HCMV gB as an important component for clinical testing of a prophylactic HCMV vaccine.

Human Cytomegalovirus Delays Neutrophil Apoptosis and Stimulates the Release of a Prosurvival Secretome.

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a major cause of viral disease in the young and the immune-suppressed. At sites of infection, HCMV recruits the neutrophil, a cell with a key role in orchestrating the initial immune response. Herein, we report a profound survival response in human neutrophils exposed to the clinical HCMV isolate Merlin, but not evident with the attenuated strain AD169, through suppression of apoptosis. The initial survival event, which is independent of viral gene expression and involves activation of the ERK/MAPK and NF-κB pathways, is augmented by HCMV-stimulated release of a secretory cytokine profile that further prolongs neutrophil lifespan. As aberrant neutrophil survival contributes to tissue damage, we predict that this may be relevant to the immune pathology of HCMV, and the presence of this effect in clinical HCMV strains and its absence in attenuated strains implies a beneficial effect to the virus in pathogenesis and/or dissemination. In addition, we show that HCMV-exposed neutrophils release factors that enhance monocyte recruitment and drive monocyte differentiation to a HCMV-permissive phenotype in an IL-6-dependent manner, thus providing an ideal vehicle for viral dissemination. This study increases understanding of HCMV–neutrophil interactions, highlighting the potential role of neutrophil recruitment as a virulence mechanism to promote HCMV pathology in the host and influence the dissemination of HCMV infection. Targeting these mechanisms may lead to new antiviral strategies aimed at limiting host damage and inhibiting viral spread.

A Luciferase Gene Driven by an Alphaherpesviral Promoter Also Responds to Immediate Early Antigens of the Betaherpesvirus HCMV, Allowing Comparative Analyses of Different Human Herpesviruses in One Reporter Cell Line.

Widely used methods for quantification of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection in cell culture such as immunoblotting or plaque reduction assays are generally restricted to low throughput and require time-consuming evaluation. Up to now, only few HCMV reporter cell lines have been generated to overcome these restrictions and they are afflicted with other limitations because permanently expandable cell lines are normally not fully permissive to HCMV. In this work, a previously existing epithelial cell line hosting a luciferase gene under control of a Varicella-zoster virus promoter was adopted to investigate HCMV infection. The cells were susceptible to different HCMV strains at infection efficiencies that corresponded to their respective degree of epithelial cell tropism. Expression of early and late viral antigens, formation of nuclear inclusions, release of infectious virus progeny, and focal growth indicated productive viral replication. However, viral release and spread occurred at lower levels than in primary cell lines which appears to be due to a malfunction of virion morphogenesis during the nuclear stage. Expression of the luciferase reporter gene was specifically induced in HCMV infected cultures as a function of the virus dose and dependent on viral immediate early gene expression. The level of reporter activity accurately reflected infection efficiencies as determined by viral antigen immunostaining, and hence could discriminate the cell tropism of the tested virus strains. As proof-of-principle, we demonstrate that this cell line is applicable to evaluate drug resistance of clinical HCMV isolates and the neutralization capacity of human sera, and that it allows comparative and simultaneous analysis of HCMV and human herpes simplex virus type 1. In summary, the permanent epithelial reporter cell line allows robust, rapid and objective quantitation of HCMV infection and it will be particularly useful in higher throughput analyses as well as in comparative analyses of different human herpesviruses.

A cluster of 3' coterminal transcripts from US12-US17 locus of human cytomegalovirus.

Among all the human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) gene families, US12 family is relatively undefined in their transcriptional profile and biological functions. In this study, the transcription pattern and characteristics of HCMV US12-US17 gene region were studied extensively. Twenty-three clones harboring US12 cDNA sequence were screened out from a late cDNA library of an HCMV clinical isolate, Han. Using a set of US12-US17 gene-specific probes, six transcripts from US12-US17 locus were detected by northern blot at late kinetics of the clinical isolate. One additional transcript was found in late RNA of HCMV strain AD169. No evidence showing these transcripts contain introns by reverse transcription PCR. 3' and 5' termini of these transcripts were confirmed by Rapid Amplification of cDNA Ends. A novel protein-coding region was predicted in the shorter US14 transcript with an alternative in-frame 5' translation initiation site compared to that of the previously predicted US14 ORF. Our findings demonstrate the existence of a cluster of 3' coterminal unspliced transcripts with distinct 5' transcriptional initiation sites originated from US12-US17 gene region in the late infection phase of an HCMV clinical strain.

Human cytomegalovirus glycoprotein N polymorphisms among renal transplant recipients in India

Background Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is one of the most common infectious complications in renal transplant recipients. Extensive genetic polymorphisms in envelope glycoproteins of HCMV have been demonstrated among clinical HCMV isolates. Some previous studies have proposed the potential linkage between HCMV gN genotype to the frequency of symptomatic infection and clinical outcome in renal transplant recipients. No data available on circulating HCMV strains among renal transplant recipients in India.