Clinical Andrology Research Articles

Genomic and post-genomic leads toward regulation of spermatogenesis

Declining male fertility without sign of any recovery and limited understanding about mechanisms involved in the intra-testicular regulation of spermatogenesis, withholding clinicians from delivering appropriate line of treatment, are serious causes of concern. Several infertile men are not amenable to treatment because hormonal deficiency or physical obstruction is not the underlying cause. A hope has been generated in the post genomic era where we can have information about the testicular genes and proteins which regulate germ cell division, differentiation and maturation in an interactive manner. Expression of some of these genes and proteins may be governed by classical hormones. However, if the genes are defective (naturally or acquired later in life), mere treatment with hormone(s), as is opted presently by clinicians, would not result into production of sperm. High throughput techniques and post genomic endeavors have generated plethora of data for fundamental and clinical andrology. Appropriate analyses and interlinking of these datasets may provide access to very precise information on a myriad of somatic and germ cell specific genes and proteins. Studies of functional genomics involving cell and age specific expression of some of these testicular genes will not only pin point precise role of certain biomolecules in various steps of spermatogenesis but it will also provide strong basis for the diagnosis and treatment of male infertility. In this review, we present some transcriptomic and proteomic information from various testicular somatic and germ cell studies and discuss how a systems biology approach may be brought in to meaningfully utilize the available information.

Routine cryopreservation of spermatozoa is safe — Evidence from the DNA methylation pattern of nine spermatozoa genes

Assess short- and mid-term impact of cryopreservation on DNA methylation status of different genes in spermatozoa. Semen samples from 10 healthy normozoospermic men were collected at the Department of Clinical Andrology of the Centre of Reproductive Medicine and Andrology (Muenster, Germany). Each was divided into four equal aliquots: 1) untreated, 2) diluted in cryoprotectant, 3) short term (2days) cryopreserved and 4) mid term (4weeks) cryopreserved. Samples were "swim-up" purified prior to analysis. DNA fragmentation was measured using comet assay and Flow cytometric evaluation with Acridine Orange (FCEAO). The degree of methylation of nine genes was determined by bisulfite pyrosequencing of genomic DNA. Analysis of three maternally imprinted genes (LIT1, SNRPN, MEST), two paternally imprinted genes (MEG3, H19), two repetitive elements (ALU, LINE1), one spermatogenesis-specific gene (VASA) and one gene associated with male infertility (MTHFR) in semen samples demonstrated no alteration in methylation pattern regardless of duration of cryopreservation. The lack of any changes in the sub-fraction of the genome examined in our study, implies that sperm DNA methylation is unaffected by cryopreservation and suggests that this daily clinical routine is safe in terms of DNA methylation.

“ANDROLOGY”—The New Journal of the American Society of Andrology and the European Academy of Andrology

“<i>ANDROLOGY</i>”—The New Journal of the American Society of Andrology and the European Academy of Andrology

Sperm motility: things are moving in the lab!

Sperm motility is one of the three fundamental tenets of semen analysis providing diagnostic and prognostic information for both natural and assisted reproduction technology (ART) conception. The landmark papers of John MacLeod and Ruth Gold demonstrated clear differences between subfertile and fertile men in sperm motility (MacLeod and Gold, 1951) which have been confirmed by a plethora of subsequent studies (Barratt et al., 2011). The WHO new reference values for motility, as well as sperm concentration (Cooper et al., 2010), are remarkably similar to those proposed by MacLeod and Gold in 1951 (32% motile cells as a 5% centile of a fertile population), suggesting that these observations are robust. The primary conclusion from all these studies is that although there is no magic number or threshold for in vivo fertility, at the lower ends of the motility spectrum, there are significantly higher chances of subfertility (Fig. 1). This overwhelming body of clinical information ignited a series of studies developing new methods to obtain sperm kinematic data. Initial information was very encouraging, e.g. using the biological endpoints of penetration of cervical mucus (Mortimer et al., 1986). With the advent of computer-assisted semen analysis (CASA) machines, making kinematics more widely available, there was an explosion in studies reporting the relationship of quantitative motility and kinematic parameters with conception in vivo (Barratt et al., 1992), in donor insemination (Irvine and Aitken, 1986), in IUI (Bollendorf et al., 1996), IVF (Liu et al., 1991) and even ICSI (Van den Bergh et al., 1998). However, in the last 15 years, there have been a paucity of further studies perhaps due to the limitations in CASA technology but more likely due to the perceived lack of clinical need following the development of ICSI. Another clinically relevant aspect of sperm motility research that has apparently been shelved in the archives is the potential for in vitro enhancement of motility using a wide variety of drugs that target phosphodiesterases (PDEs) and increase [cAMP]. Simplistically, increasing the number of functional cells at the site of fertilization would appear to be a rational objective (Fig. 1). Historically, the most widely used drug was pentoxifylline where results were encouraging in both IVF and IUI (Yovich et al., 1990; Stone et al., 1999). However, the lack of recent research is particularly noticeable in the context of the overwhelming progress on specific (third generation) PDE inhibitors. While targeting of PDE5 is not likely to be very useful (Lefievre et al., 2000), there are a number of new-generation PDE inhibitors available that may positively influence sperm function. It is of course not just PDEs that require investigation and the modification of other enzymes, e.g. kinases and phosphatases, will provide a wealth of interesting data. In contrast to the above, which could be described as sleeping giants of ‘clinical andrology’, there has been breathtaking progress in the understanding of sperm motility in the research laboratory, largely brought on by developments in technology: patch clamping, imaging and the rudimentary synergy of mathematics/physics with sperm biology (systems biology of sperm). A primary example is the role of Ca2+ in regulating the activity of the flagellum. Central to this has been the discovery of CatSper channels and elucidation of their role(s) in sperm function. In mice, the main source of Ca2+ entry for hyperactivation appears to be via pH-dependent CatSper channels in the plasma membrane of the flagellar principal piece. These channels are essential for male fertility as sperm from CatSper null mice are motile but unable to hyperactivate, rendering them unable to migrate to or within the oviduct and unable to fertilize oocytes even by IVF (Ren et al., 2001; Carlson et al., 2003; Quill et al., 2003). CatSper channels are also present in the flagellum of human

Setting up a men's clinic has never been an easy task. I have done it, and here is my story

Setting up a men's clinic has never been an easy task. I have done it, and here is my story

Semen analysis and sperm function tests: How much to test?

Semen analysis as an integral part of infertility investigations is taken as a surrogate measure for male fecundity in clinical andrology, male fertility, and pregnancy risk assessments. Clearly, laboratory seminology is still very much in its infancy. In as much as the creation of a conventional semen profile will always represent the foundations of male fertility evaluation, the 5th edition of the World Health Organization (WHO) manual is a definitive statement on how such assessments should be carried out and how the quality should be controlled. A major advance in this new edition of the WHO manual, resolving the most salient critique of previous editions, is the development of the first well-defined reference ranges for semen analysis based on the analysis of over 1900 recent fathers. The methodology used in the assessment of the usual variables in semen analysis is described, as are many of the less common, but very valuable, sperm function tests. Sperm function testing is used to determine if the sperm have the biologic capacity to perform the tasks necessary to reach and fertilize ova and ultimately result in live births. A variety of tests are available to evaluate different aspects of these functions. To accurately use these functional assays, the clinician must understand what the tests measure, what the indications are for the assays, and how to interpret the results to direct further testing or patient management.

Testing sperm DNA damage by tunel assay in specific cases of male infertility

OBJECTIVE: The TUNEL (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated fluorescein-dUTP nick end labeling) assay is a direct assay measuring single and double strand DNA breaks. Our objective was to standardize the TUNEL assay by: 1) establishing inter- intra observer variability, inter assay variability, cutoff value, sensitivity, specificity of the assay and 2) study the distribution of the DNA damage in a population of infertile men referred to the clinical andrology laboratory.DESIGN: Sperm DNA damage by TUNEL and flow cytometry.MATERIALS AND METHODS: Seminal ejaculates from 43 controls and 114 infertile men referred to andrology lab were tested for sperm DNA damage by TUNEL assay using Apo-Direct kit. Negative and positive controls were included in each run. Flow cytometric analysis was performed and percentage of cells positive for TUNEL was calculated using the flow cytometer software. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve, cutoff value, sensitivity and specificity was calculated.RESULTS: Inter- and intra-observer and interassay variability was <10%. Higher DNA damage was seen in patients (29.5% ± 18.7% compared with controls (11.9% ± 6.8%; P<0.001). The cutoff value of 19.3% showed 64.9% sensitivity and 100 % specificity. When the DNA damage was categorized into 0-10%, 10-20%, 20-30%, 30-40% and >40%, in the patients, 14.9% (29 of 194) had DNA damage between 0-10%; 22.7% (44 of 194) between 10-20%, 8.8% (17 of 194) between 20-30%, 17.5% (34 of 194) between 30-40% and 27.3% (53 of 194) had TUNEL values >40%.CONCLUSION: We report a detailed stepwise standardization of the TUNEL assay for clinical use. A cutoff of 19.5% with 100% specificity can differentiate infertile men with DNA damage from healthy men. High sensitivity and 100% specificity in our program makes it an ideal test. Each program must establish their threshold values. This test can be offered to infertile men who are idiopathic or who have oxidative stress and are considering assisted reproductive options. OBJECTIVE: The TUNEL (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated fluorescein-dUTP nick end labeling) assay is a direct assay measuring single and double strand DNA breaks. Our objective was to standardize the TUNEL assay by: 1) establishing inter- intra observer variability, inter assay variability, cutoff value, sensitivity, specificity of the assay and 2) study the distribution of the DNA damage in a population of infertile men referred to the clinical andrology laboratory. DESIGN: Sperm DNA damage by TUNEL and flow cytometry. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Seminal ejaculates from 43 controls and 114 infertile men referred to andrology lab were tested for sperm DNA damage by TUNEL assay using Apo-Direct kit. Negative and positive controls were included in each run. Flow cytometric analysis was performed and percentage of cells positive for TUNEL was calculated using the flow cytometer software. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve, cutoff value, sensitivity and specificity was calculated. RESULTS: Inter- and intra-observer and interassay variability was <10%. Higher DNA damage was seen in patients (29.5% ± 18.7% compared with controls (11.9% ± 6.8%; P<0.001). The cutoff value of 19.3% showed 64.9% sensitivity and 100 % specificity. When the DNA damage was categorized into 0-10%, 10-20%, 20-30%, 30-40% and >40%, in the patients, 14.9% (29 of 194) had DNA damage between 0-10%; 22.7% (44 of 194) between 10-20%, 8.8% (17 of 194) between 20-30%, 17.5% (34 of 194) between 30-40% and 27.3% (53 of 194) had TUNEL values >40%. CONCLUSION: We report a detailed stepwise standardization of the TUNEL assay for clinical use. A cutoff of 19.5% with 100% specificity can differentiate infertile men with DNA damage from healthy men. High sensitivity and 100% specificity in our program makes it an ideal test. Each program must establish their threshold values. This test can be offered to infertile men who are idiopathic or who have oxidative stress and are considering assisted reproductive options.

Meiotic chromosome abnormalities in fertile men: are they increasing?

To determine the basal frequencies of meiotic chromosome abnormalities in fertile men. Descriptive design. Research university laboratory and clinical andrology service. Seventeen fertile donors undergoing vasectomy. Analysis of testicular biopsies. Meiotic chromosome abnormalities in metaphase I spermatocytes. A total of 1,407 spermatocytes I was analyzed. The main meiotic abnormality was absence or low chiasma number of individual bivalents (23.4%), followed by structural (3.3%) and numerical (0.7%) abnormalities. Sex chromosomes and G-group chromosomes were the most commonly found as univalents at metaphase I. Statistically significant heterogeneity was found for meiotic abnormalities among fertile men, caused by interindividual variation in the level of dissociated sex chromosomes (ranging from 3.2% to 43.7%). The mean total percentage of meiotic abnormalities in spermatocytes I from fertile men was 27.4%, 1.7 times higher than those described a few decades ago in fertile and even in infertile men. Fertile men are a heterogeneous group for meiotic errors, with individuals showing percentages of meiotic abnormalities as high as 50%. From these findings, caution is recommended when using meiotic studies to diagnose and provide genetic counselling to patients consulting for infertility.

TUNEL as a Test for Sperm DNA Damage in the Evaluation of Male Infertility

To standardize the TUNEL assay by establishing inter- and intraobserver variability, interassay variability, cutoff values, sensitivity and specificity of the assay, and studying the distribution of the DNA damage in a population of infertile men referred to a clinical andrology laboratory. Seminal ejaculates from 25 healthy male volunteers (controls) and 194 infertile men (with male factor infertility) referred to an andrology laboratory were examined for DNA damage by TUNEL assay using flow cytometric analysis. Both the inter- and intraobserver variability and interassay variability was small (<10%). DNA damage in the controls was 11.9 ± 6.8% vs. 29.5 ± 18.7% in patients (P <.001). The cut-off value of 19.25% maximized the observed sensitivity (64.9%) and specificity (100%) of the assay. The distribution of DNA damage in the patients was as follows: 14.9% (29 of 194) with DNA damage between 0% and 10%; 22.7% (44 of 194) between 10% and 20%; 8.8% (17 of 194) between 20% and 30%; and 17.5% (34 of 194) between 30% and 40%. Finally, 27.3% (53 of 194) had TUNEL values >40%. We report a detailed standardization of the TUNEL assay for clinical use, as well as reference ranges for DNA damage in normal healthy donors and infertile men. A cut-off of 19.25% with observed 100% specificity established in our program can differentiate infertile men with DNA damage from healthy men. This test can be offered to infertile patients who are idiopathic, have severe oxidative stress-related abnormal semen quality, and contribute to the infertility problem of the couple who are considering assisted reproductive techniques.

Flow Cytometry: A New Approach for Indirect Assessment of Sperm Protamine Deficiency

Background Flow cytometry (FCM) has been extensively used to study mammalian sperm in the areas of clinical andrology and reproductive toxicology. FCM provides a powerful advantage over microscopy technique in terms of rapid accurate and reproducible technology for the quantification of various cell characteristics including chromatin status. During spermiogenesis histones are replaced by protamines resulting in a very condensed structure of sperm chromatin. Infertile men have an increased sperm histone: protamine ratio than fertile counterparts. Chromomycin A3 (CMA3) staining represents a useful tool for assessing the packaging quality of sperm chromatin and allows indirect visualization of protamine deficiency. Routinely fluorescence microscope is used for evaluation of protamine deficiency by CMA3. Considering the advantages of FCM and increasing use of CMA3 in assessment of protamine deficiency in the literature and its possible use as a diagnostic test the aim of this study is to standardize this procedure for routine laboratory analysis. Materials and methods Semen samples were collected from 85 infertile men who referred to Isfahan Fertility and Infertility Center. A portion of semen sample was used for routine semen analysis according to WHO criteria and the remainder were evaluated to standardize CMA3 staining procedure for fixation the number of sperm and duration of exposure to CMA3. The results were compared with standard fluorescent microscopic procedure. Percentage CMA3 positive sperm were compared between flow cytometry and standard fluorescent microscopic procedure. Results Our results show that fixation the number of sperm and duration of exposure to CMA3 can affect on FCM outcomes. In addition we show that the samples can be fixed stained with CMA3 stores and then assessed for FCM. Conclusion The optimal conditions for FCM assessment of CMA3 are: fixation concentration of 0.25 mg/ml sperm density of 2 million/ml and exposure for 60 minutes.

Asian Journal of Andrology is advancing towards a bright future

As time quickly passes, we once again have the opportunity to wave goodbye to last year and welcome the New Year. This is also an ideal point at which to reflect on the past and envision a brighter future for Asian Journal of Andrology (AJA). Although we cannot find more time, we can maximize what fleeting time we have. We are proud to have succeeded in making the most of 2009, thanks in part to our distinguished Editorial Board members, reviewers, authors, readers and sponsors, whose efforts continue to contribute to the success of AJA. Last year was AJA's first year being published by Nature Publishing Group (NPG). The transition to NPG went smoothly, and we continue to make the most of this fruitful partnership. The first issue of 2009 was a Special Issue on Prostate Cancer organized by guest-editors Dr Roger Kirby and Dr Shu-Jie Xia, who presented a collection of review and research articles outlining the current basic and clinical understanding of prostate cancer. This issue was a great success, and we plan to publish more special issues on topics of intensive global research. Another notable event in 2009 was AJA's 2008 impact factor, released by Thomson Reuters in June. The journal's impact factor rose to 2.059 – a 28% increase over the 2007 impact factor of 1.609, and a substantial and encouraging increase since the journal's launch in 1999. More recently, the Third Asia-Pacific Forum on Andrology (3APFA) was held in conjunction with the Tenth Anniversary Celebration of AJA on 10–13 October in Nanjing, China. Approximately 600 meeting participants from every corner of the globe enjoyed a well-organized program of lectures encompassing a wide range of thought-provoking topics in basic and clinical andrology that centered on the theme of “Environment, Lifestyle and Genetic/Epigenetic Factors, and Men's Health”. The positive feedback we have received since the conference reflects the resounding success of this productive and constructive congress. As we face the New Year and its challenges and opportunities, obvious questions include how AJA envisions the future and what actions the journal has planned. Highly motivated by the wisdom and suggestions of our Editorial Board members worldwide, we have full confidence in shaping a vibrant and exciting new perspective for the journal. We will continue to welcome the help of the most qualified, enthusiastic and reputable scientists to achieve our aim of establishing an interactive communication platform for authors, Editorial Board members, readers and editors. We will also introduce new article types, Authoritative Commentary, Opinion Articles, and Debates on Hot Topics and organize more Special Issues to highlight important and upcoming topics in andrology. By keeping a close eye on the state-of-the-art in andrology, AJA's scientific quality will continue to improve. An example of this is the current Special Issue on Semen Analysis in 21st Century Medicine, which is the result of months of hard work of two esteemed guest-editors, Prof David J. Handelsman and Dr Trevor G. Cooper, as well as the many distinguished authors who kindly contributed their intuitive and insightful thoughts on the recommendations and guidelines for quality control and interpretation set down in the 5th edition of the World Health Organization (WHO) Laboratory Manual for the Examination and Processing of Human Semen 1. The purpose of this collection is to discuss some of the 'behind the scenes' controversies – many of which persist – including the origins, utility and specific applications of population reference ranges for semen analysis, problems with modern morphological methodology, and the possibilities and limitations of using semen analysis in population or clinical research studies beyond its original use for male infertility evaluation. We anticipate more lively discussions among scientists and clinicians on this broad topic, which has animated the field of andrology. AJA began in 1999 with the aim of building an academic platform for the exchange of scientific information, to promote scientific communication and cooperation in Asia and throughout the world. Today, more than ten years later, we are proud to say that we have made enormous progress towards this goal. AJA is still young, but has great energy, great enthusiasm, great vision and great expectation. Facing the challenges the coming decades may bring, we resolutely reaffirm our aim to make AJA an international medical journal of the highest standard. The work ahead is still formidable, but with the solid foundation we have already built, with AJA's energy and enthusiasm, NPG's strengths, and with the efforts of our supporters, our aim can, should and will be attained! As we listen to the steps of the New Year approaching us, and hear the bells ringing out the old year and ringing in the new, we sincerely wish you a happy, healthy and harmonious life in this holiday season. Best wishes for the New Year!

Assessment of human sperm protein tyrosine phosphorylation by immunocytochemistry in a clinical andrology laboratory. Preliminary data

We propose that evaluation of protein tyrosine phosphorylation (TP) status in ejaculated spermatozoa under capacitating conditions in an experiment that mimics “in vitro” the physiology of sperm from ejaculation through the female genital tract could potentially be used as a prognostic test for functional competence of sperm in fertilization. Our purpose was to elucidate whether there is a relation between conventional sperm parameters, occurrence of TP and pregnancy outcome obtained from intrauterine insemination (IUI). Semen samples were analyzed according to WHO criteria. TP levels were determined by immunocytochemistry under four different conditions: 1) ejaculated sperm, 2) postselection sperm, 3) postselection sperm incubated 5 h at 37° C and 5% CO2, and 4) postselection sperm incubated overnight at 37° C and 5% CO2. Data on sperm tyrosine phosphorylated proteins did not correlate with sperm concentration, progressive motility or normal sperm morphology. TP increased under capacitating conditions and showed a time dependent pattern except for five outlier cases. IUI was performed in 12 selected couples who had neither female nor male infertility factors. The three pregnancies had a time dependent pattern for TP. Of the unsuccessful cases, one had an outlier TP pattern. It appears that a TP time dependent pattern is necessary for fertilization.

World Health Organization reference values for human semen characteristics*‡

Semen quality is taken as a surrogate measure of male fecundity in clinical andrology, male fertility, reproductive toxicology, epidemiology and pregnancy risk assessments. Reference intervals for values of semen parameters from a fertile population could provide data from which prognosis of fertility or diagnosis of infertility can be extrapolated. Semen samples from over 4500 men in 14 countries on four continents were obtained from retrospective and prospective analyses on fertile men, men of unknown fertility status and men selected as normozoospermic. Men whose partners had a time-to-pregnancy (TTP) of < or =12 months were chosen as individuals to provide reference distributions for semen parameters. Distributions were also generated for a population assumed to represent the general population. The following one-sided lower reference limits, the fifth centiles (with 95th percent confidence intervals), were generated from men whose partners had TTP < or = 12 months: semen volume, 1.5 ml (1.4-1.7); total sperm number, 39 million per ejaculate (33-46); sperm concentration, 15 million per ml (12-16); vitality, 58% live (55-63); progressive motility, 32% (31-34); total (progressive + non-progressive) motility, 40% (38-42); morphologically normal forms, 4.0% (3.0-4.0). Semen quality of the reference population was superior to that of the men from the general population and normozoospermic men. The data represent sound reference distributions of semen characteristics of fertile men in a number of countries. They provide an appropriate tool in conjunction with clinical data to evaluate a patient's semen quality and prospects for fertility.

Localisation of enzymes in live spermatozoa by CellProbe™ reagents (preliminary results)

Summary. As a new approach, various synthetic fluorogenic substrates, the CellProbe™ reagents, were applied to examine the topography of their cleavage in vital human spermatozoa. These substrates are able to enter the cells without requiring previous cell permeabilization and can produce a fluorescent dye after cleavage, depending on enzyme activity. Vital spermatozoa from samples with normal spermiogram parameters showed fluorescence in different areas and intensity after incubation with a variety of substrates for aminopeptidase A, peroxides, subtilisin, dipeptidylpeptidase IV (DPP IV), cathepsin D, glucosidase and glucuronidase, but not with the substrate for galactosidase. Fluorescence was mainly located in the acrosomal cap (substrates for DPP IV, subtilisin, cathepsin D, glucosidase and glucuronidase) in the middle piece and head (substrates for peroxides, glucosidase), in the sperm head (substrates for aminopeptidase A) and occasionally in the tail (substrate for glucosidase). The substrate for subtilisin may play a role in andrology, because subtilisin is a serine protease like acrosin. This substrate may possibly be used to determine the acrosin activity in vital spermatozoa. The CellProbe™ reagents for fluorescence cytoenzymology may serve advanced methods in both clinical andrology and spermiological research, presuming that the characteristics and qualities of the synthetic substrates are correct. Therefore, more extended studies will be necessary to determine their clinical utility and significance under physiological and pathological conditions.

Soy lecithin replaces egg yolk for cryopreservation of human sperm without adversely affecting postthaw motility, morphology, sperm DNA integrity, or sperm binding to hyaluronate

Semen specimens (one ejaculate from each of 20 consenting study participants) were subjected to routine semen analysis, an in vitro sperm binding assay (HBA), and a sperm chromatin dispersion assay (HaloSperm), both before and after cryopreservation using cryoprotectant media supplemented with either egg yolk or soy lecithin. Comparing the equivalency of the two phospholipid cryopreservation supplements with regard to postthaw functional parameters demonstrated that there were no statistically significant differences between the two supplements for [1] recovery of motile sperm, [2] maintenance of sperm cell morphology, [3] maintenance of the ability of sperm to bind to hyaluronate in vitro, or [4] maintenance of sperm DNA integrity.

Andrology--development and future. Critical remarks after 45 years of medical practice.

The development of andrology from its beginning to the present time is discussed from a historical point of view. Since andrology is a clinical discipline, only well-trained physicians are allowed to investigate and treat patients. The term 'andrology', which was first introduced in the USA more than 100 years ago, was independently reborn in Germany and thereafter used in other European countries. Since then, an increasing number of physicians all over the world have applied the term 'andrology' for their professional work. Many local societies and groups of andrologists were established. In 1969, Andrologia was founded as the first international journal of andrology in Germany. In the meantime, further andrological journals have been established. Concerning the future development of andrology, the following should be considered: (i) the organizational structure of andrology must include the basic training of physicians working in this field; (ii) the necessity of andrology as a medical specialty with regard to modern technologies of assisted reproduction etc., must be emphasized; (iii) internationally accepted recommendations for the training of andrologists with special reference to both clinical andrology and laboratory techniques should be established; (iv) andrology should be established as a separate specialty.

Studies on the origin and nature of seminal proteins by cellulose acetate electrophoresis.

Electrophoresis of semen on cellulose acetate strips allowed the localization of 19 protein bands. Twelve of these were analyzed for their composition and ten for their tissue of origin. Four bands were composed of prostatic products, three contained secretions form the seminal vesicles, and various serum products composed six others. Assays were also performed for acid phosphatase activity, glycoproteins and proteins bound to zinc. Proteins in semen were found to be broken down with time during incubation at 37C and therefore only fresh specimens or material which is frozen immediately after liquefaction may be used with these techniques. Our experiments clearly show that electrophoresis of semen may be a useful technique in clinical andrology: in particular in the case of excretory azoospermia and infections of the genital tract.

Clinical Andrology

Clinical Andrology

Empfehlungen der „Deutschen Gesellschaft für Andrologie” und der „Deutschen Gesellschaft zum Studium der Fertilität und Sterilität” für die Förderung der Andrologie” in Deutschland

Recommendations of "Deutsche Gesellschaft für Andrologie" and "Deutsche Gesellschaft zum Studium der Fertilität und Sterilität" concerning the development as well as the future and the support of andrology in Germany are made. Furthermore, these proposals contain some aspects about the organization of a Department of Andrology or Andrological Units including a special program of training in clinical andrology as well as in basic research.

Assessment of human sperm protein tyrosine phosphorylation by immunocytochemistry in a clinical andrology laboratory. Preliminary data

Assessment of human sperm protein tyrosine phosphorylation by immunocytochemistry in a clinical andrology laboratory. Preliminary data