Climate-resilient Development Research Articles

Climate Change 2022 Mitigation of Climate Change: Urban System

The Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC-AR6) assesses literature on the scientific, technological, environmental, economic, and social aspects of mitigation of climate change. The IPCC-AR6 integrates factors of developments in the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) process. It includes the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, and the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development including the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This paper reviews the urban system and its pathways in transition to the net zero emissions. The key messages of urban mitigation in the IPCC-AR6 are presented. It is found that the urban green and blue infrastructure can contribute to climate resilience through carbon sequestration, emissions reduction, and energy and material efficiency. It also contributes multiple co-benefits. To achieve urban transformational changes, it requires climate finance and engagement of multiple scales of governance. This includes governments and non-state actors. A knowledge gap to achieve net-zero-emissions cities is highlighted, and a case study of climate resilient development in Thailand’s building sectors towards a low carbon society is discussed.

Migration Along Bengaluru’s Rural–Urban Continuum: Implications for Household Well-being and Climate Change Adaptation

The academic literature on internal migration in India has been limited to studies which either capture the well-being of migrants at home or destination. With rural–urban (R–U) boundaries blurring and peri-urban areas gaining economic importance, it is imperative to move away from such binaries towards a continuum approach. Using mixed methods, this paper examines the differentiated nature of migration—its drivers and outcomes—across a R–U continuum in Karnataka. Combining household surveys with focus group discussions and life history interviews, across Bengaluru, its periphery and two predominantly rural districts, which are a source of in-migration, we document the variegated nature of migration. We show that while migrants into Bengaluru enter mostly unskilled livelihoods, peri-urban migrants tend to work in the formal sector. We also show how migration decisions are shaped by climate variability, environmental change, and social and class identity; and these factors mediate differentiated outcomes of moving on household well-being. Our findings have implications for interventions aimed at strengthening household capacities to deal with climatic and non-climatic risks and regional climate-resilient development. We also highlight that enabling inclusive, climate-resilient migration requires comprehensive interventions targeting material and subjective well-being of migrating households and individuals.

The dual approach to climate change adaptation in official development assistance

ABSTRACT A dual approach is an effective method for formulating climate change adaptation measures. It combines both a top-down approach, whereby plans are formulated based on climate change projections, and a bottom-up approach, in which plans are formulated based on the situation in the target region. I analyse Japan’s advanced measures and a development case in Timor-Leste, where some level of adaptation effectiveness is expected. In Timor-Leste, the inadequacy of scientific data makes the top-down approach difficult, but the bottom-up approach based on thorough field surveys can promote climate-resilient development which can be expected to have high adaptation effects in such circumstances. To achieve this, it is necessary to complement scientific data with available data, further strengthen the current system in which each actor thinks independently and works and collaborates with others, and train facilitators who can understand scientific data.

Challenges for climate change adaptation in Latin America and the Caribbean region

The limited success of international efforts to reduce global warming at levels established in the Paris Agreement, and the increasing frequency and strength of climate impacts, highlight the urgent need of adaptation, particularly in developing countries. Unfortunately, current levels of adaptation initiatives are not enough to counteract the observed impacts and projected risks from climate change in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). In this paper, we review and highlight relevant issues that have limited the capacity to transform climate knowledge and parties’ ambitions into action in the region. Current vulnerabilities and climatic impact-drivers in LAC are diverse, complex, and region-specific and their effects are expected to be exacerbated by climate change. However, the advancement of regional and domestic climate agendas has been hindered by scientific gaps, political support, institutional capacity, and financial, technical, human, and economic limitations that are common to many LAC countries. Transforming climate data into multidimensional metrics with useful thresholds for different sectors and understanding their contribution for feasible adaptation strategies are delayed by regional and local conundrums such as lack of inclusive governance, data availability, equity, justice, and transboundary issues. We discuss ways to move forward to develop local and regional climate resilient development actions and a more sustainable future in LAC. The climate science community in LAC needs to strengthen its local, national, and international connections and with decision/policymakers and society to establish a three-way engagement by proposing suitable adaptation actions and international negotiations to reduce the risks and vulnerability associated with climate extremes, climate variability and climate change in the region. The discussions and insights presented in this work could be extrapolated to other countries in the Global South.

Unlocking climate finance for social protection: an analysis of the Green Climate Fund

ABSTRACT Social protection has gained increasing attention in global climate policy due to its potential to contribute to low-carbon, just and climate-resilient development. Unlocking climate finance for social protection is critical to realize this potential. Multilateral climate funds established under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) can play a particularly important role by financing social sectors where private investments are not attractive. Yet, there is a distinct policy and research gap in understanding the potential and limitations of the UNFCCC financial mechanisms to support social protection in low- and middle-income countries. Taking as a case study the Green Climate Fund (GCF), which is the largest multilateral fund under the financial mechanism of the UNFCCC, we seek to address this gap. First, the study introduces a framework for analysis of the ways climate finance engages with social protection by looking into a comprehensive set of formal social services and transfers provided by the state to individuals, households, and on a collective basis. Second, the study identifies a continuum of entry points for integrating social protection into the GCF’s project portfolio and offers a holistic perspective by capturing climate change mitigation, adaptation and loss and damage. We find that social protection can be instrumental in the design and implementation of GCF projects. In addition, our analysis reveals that the GCF has the potential to support projects that create enabling conditions for integrating climate change considerations into national social protection systems, and that aim at piloting or establishing long-term social protection mechanisms with climate change objectives.

Bangladesh's pathways to climate-resilient development: A methodical review

Climate resilient development pathways (CRDP) are procedures that reinforce sustainable development and reduce poverty and inequalities while meeting adaptation and mitigation targets. The study systematically assessed Bangladesh's efforts to combat climate change and evaluated its progress toward CRDP with a degree of confidence approach. It also assessed climate change vulnerability, national climate change plans and policies, climate finance conditions, and environmental sustainability. The study revealed that the recent climate change plans and strategies have transformative, social inclusiveness, gender responsiveness, climate resilience, institutional flexibility and coordination, and target setting and monitoring attributes from a moderate to large extent. However, to implement its recently developed climate plans like the Mujib Climate Prosperity Plan, Delta Plan, NAP, and NDC, where funding is essential—the nation needs USD 533.7 billion. The study suggests that though the country has implemented several plans and strategies in recent decades, uneven progress has appeared in some important socio-economic and environmental indicators as well as SDGs which signifies low return against investment. It can be concluded that ensuring maximum socio-economic and environmental return on investment, long-term climate finance, strengthening local govt. organizations, adopting region specific and holistic approaches with private sector engagement would advance CRDP attainment as well as a nature positive economy and system transition in Bangladesh.

Adaptation to sea level rise in France

AbstractSea level rise due to climate change is an ongoing process that will continue for centuries and millennia. In response to this, France is increasingly considering sea level rise in its coastal risks and land use policies. Here, we show that despite real progress in coastal adaptation policies made so far, major challenges remain. We report progress regarding the consideration of ongoing erosion and flooding during storms, in particular owing to an evolving national regulation increasingly supporting the implementation of a nationally defined integrated coastal zones management strategy. Yet, chronic flooding at high-tides in ports and cities expected to emerge in the 2030s, as well as permanent flooding and shoreline retreat projected to take place within centuries without major protection works remain largely unaddressed to date. Major questions remain in terms of adaptation finance and other measures supporting coastal adaptation such as climate services. Finally, the topic of coastal adaptation lacks connections with the broader context of transformations needed to address climate change, biodiversity losses, and meet the sustainable development goals. The case of France exemplifies how an evolving adaptation planning, which takes decades to implement, can ultimately fall short of effectively addressing major transformational challenges and achieving climate resilient development. We argue that a clear and transparent public debate on climate change and the nature of solutions could help bridge the gap between ongoing adaptation and transformative measures in line with the challenges.

The sustainability of development pathways and climate change vulnerability in the Americas

Sustainability transformation requires societies to shift their development pathways to maintain ecological integrity and supply basic human needs over generations. We examine the sustainability of the development pathways of 351 national and sub-national geopolitical units in the Americas between 2001 and 2020. Then, we test the hypothesis that such pathways are influenced by land area, population size and topographic heterogeneity. Finally, we combine information about the sustainability of development pathways with population density and future climate change index to identify the Americas' socio-climatic hotspots. The Americas is a mosaic of geopolitical units following distinct development pathways. Most (74.3%) of the geopolitical units have, to date, followed unsustainable development pathways. Altogether, they represent 37.6% of the Americas' land area and are home to 83.3% of the Americas' population. Land area and topographic heterogeneity facilitate sustainable pathways, while population size constrains them. Climate change will affect all geopolitical units, but those with unsustainable development pathways, a high population density and high climate change index are expected to be particularly vulnerable and should be considered priorities for climate-resilient development programmes. There is a need for integrated place-based policies that strengthen ecological and socio-economic infrastructures to advance sustainable development pathways under changing climate conditions.

Just nature-based solutions and the pursuit of climate resilient urban development

Nature-based solutions (NbS) offer pathways towards climate resilient development. For cities, these pathways translate to a host of benefits to address the climate crisis, including climate change adaptation and mitigation, biodiversity protection and enhancement, and human well-being. In urban spaces, NbS are also about the design and re-design of the urban built and natural environment. This presents a need to create the institutions and governance mechanisms that allow for the co-production and co-design of NbS alongside local communities in ways that serve to address justice and legacies of inequality. In this perspective, I examine three areas of focus to deliver just nature-based solutions: problem, process, and progress. Problem focuses on the types of relationships nature-based solutions seek to transform—the race and class-based inequalities embedded in urban form. Process addresses how nature-based solutions can deliver justice through design and co-production. Finally, progress is about developing indicators and measuring progress towards achieving just nature-based solutions and how they reflect diverse and pluralistic value systems. Collectively these should move just NbS towards the repair of social and ecological exploitation in and beyond the city.

Realizing Low-carbon and Climate-resilient Development on Aquaculture

Aquaculture production supports food security, and it is an important commodity for Indonesia's exports. Climate change determines the sustainability of aquaculture production. Low-carbon development is an effort to control the impact of climate change from a mitigation standpoint, while climate-resilience development is an adaptation. In order to realize sustainable aquaculture in a broad and long dimension and in line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), it is necessary to develop a low-carbon and climate-resilience development strategy. A descriptive analysis was carried out on a review of published literature to develop the concept of low-carbon and climate-resilience development in aquaculture. The keywords used in the literature search are the impact of climate change on aquaculture, low-carbon development, climate-resilience development, and achievement of the SDGs in aquaculture. The research that has been published mostly discusses the potential Green House Gas emissions (GHG) from aquaculture activities, is still very limited and explains efforts to mitigate and adapt aquaculture to climate change. Efficiency and use of alternative energy sources, increased productivity, feed efficiency and effectiveness, effluent management, disease control and water quality management, and superior seeds can be applied in low-carbon emission development. Meanwhile, climate-resilience development that can be implemented includes the implementation of Integrated Multi-Tropical Aquaculture (IMTA) and Regional Integrated Multi-Tropical Aquaculture (RIMTA), closed systems, and Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS), as well as ponds that integrate mangroves.

Water scarcity and local economic activity: Spatial spillovers and the role of irrigation

This paper explores the spatial spillover effects of water scarcity on local economic activity and examines the role of irrigation in modulating these effects. Utilizing a newly assembled global geospatial data set that combines information on seasonal water availability and economic activity measured by nighttime luminosity, I conduct a spatial econometric analysis at the granular level of 0.25°×0.25° grid cells worldwide. My results reveal that agricultural water scarcity in rainfed grid cells has negative spatial spillover effects on economic activity, extending up to 300 kilometers away. However, the presence of irrigation infrastructure effectively mitigates both the direct negative impacts and the negative spatial spillover effects of agricultural water scarcity on economic activity. These results suggest that the benefits of certain climate adaptation measures may not be confined locally, but are observable at a larger scale. This paper emphasizes the importance of considering spatial dynamics and irrigation in understanding the effects of water scarcity on economic activity, providing valuable insights for water resource management policies targeted at promoting climate-resilient development.

Breaking barriers: Assessing technology transfer for climate-resilient development

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) promotes technology transfer between developed and developing countries as a crucial tool for limiting global temperature rise. This climate change mitigation role of technology transfers has attracted extensive research on the barriers to technology transfer. However, a thematic analysis consolidating the diverse data is lacking. This study aims to fill this gap by conducting a thematic analysis of the barriers to technology transfer, which will consolidate and disseminate information to enhance the chances of successful technology transfer. The study employs a non-time-restricted thematic analysis of the barriers to technology transfer spanning 1990–2023. After analysing a diverse pool of secondary data, 285 codes revealed six primary themes: Organization and knowledge, Government and law, Investment and finance, Consumer and market, Infrastructure and development, and Climate and others. The primary themes of Organization and knowledge (OK) and Government and law (GL), with frequency scores of 108 and 69, respectively, are identified as the top two barriers. Furthermore, within these primary themes of OK and GL, the subbarriers of System and technical and Political issues, with frequency scores of 53 and 26, are the most frequently cited barriers. Addressing the technology transfer barriers identified in this study improves climate resilience and aligns with global climate initiatives such as the Paris Agreement and the "New Global Financing" initiative. Therefore, the study findings can contribute to UN Sustainable Development Goal 12 and the implementation of circular economy practices.

Growing resilient futures: agroforestry as a pathway towards climate resilient development for smallholder farmers

Climate change is increasing pressure on communities that are already experiencing high levels of vulnerability and poverty, threatening their subsistence. Among the most vulnerable are smallholder farmers in the Global South, who rely on their yields for food and income. Smallholders need to adapt to changes in rainfall, temperature, and weather patterns and their knock-on effects, and at the same time, ensure that their on-farm climate adaptations do not make climate change worse by increasing greenhouse gas emissions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) emphasises the need for Climate Resilient Development Pathways (CRDPs) to support vulnerable communities, including smallholder farmers, in balancing climate adaptation, mitigation and development. CRDPs comprise reactive and/or preventive actions that key stakeholders (e.g., government, business, civil society and individuals, including smallholder farmers) can take to become more resilient in the context of a changing climate while not compromising their development or increasing emissions. The CRDP framework has so far remained conceptual, providing little information on how to actually create these pathways in practice. This paper addresses this gap, and with a focus on agroforestry projects and smallholders in the Global South, assesses how CRDPs can become more concrete and actionable through a focus on agroforestry: the voluntary combination of crop and/or pasture with trees and/or shrubs, considering its contribution to climate adaptation, mitigation and development. We draw on literature review and focus group data, analysed using Atlas.ti 23 and a coding process to present a tool relevant to project designers, policymakers and researchers to assess agroforestry projects according to different aspects of climate resilient development, with particular focus on smallholder farmers in the Global South. Evaluation of the tool found it is relevant and useful for project developers and funders to check that their projects follow the components of CRD, but the tool needs to be translated to the local context to better address local demands and reflect regional specificities, which focus group participants deemed possible.

Health and climate change: adaptation policy in Aotearoa New Zealand.

Recent extreme weather events attributable to climate change have major implications for policy. Here we summarize and evaluate the current state of climate change adaptation policy, from a health perspective, for Aotearoa New Zealand, based on government sources. Legislation relating to both environmental management and health are currently subject to major reforms. At present, adaptation policy emphasises protection of health care facilities from climate extremes; there is insufficient attention paid to broader determinants of health. We argue for greater health input into adaptation planning. Without intersectoral collaboration, contributions from diverse communities, and better support of indigenous solutions, climate change policy is unlikely to achieve effective health outcomes and there is a risk that climate change will exacerbate inequities. We recommend that the Climate Change Commission engage formally and directly with health bodies to strengthen the Commission's advice on the implications of climate change, and of national climate change policies, on health and equity. Climate resilient development does not occur without better public health. For this reason, the health sector has a critical role in the development and implementation of adaptation policy.

Ethiopia’s Path to Net Zero and Climate-Resilient Development: Policies, Costs, and Co-benefits

The paper specifically explores the corollary benefits for economic development and environmental sustainability of a low-carbon, climate-resilient, green pathway for Ethiopia—a pathway that is consistent with attaining the country’s medium- and long-term development goals. The analysis compares a net zero emissions (NZE) pathway with a business-as-usual (BAU) scenario. The BAU scenario embeds optimistic (high) economic growth assumptions from Ethiopia’s 10-Year Development Plan, and it incorporates the gradual and early incremental adoption of several climate initiatives proposed in the Climate Resilience and Green Economy Strategy. The NZE scenario builds on the implementation of Ethiopia’s nationally determined contribution (NDC) by 2030. The NZE scenario also incorporates additional climate policy options (adaptation and mitigation), resulting in net zero emissions by 2050.

Direct shear setup for studying the THM shear response of the soil-structure interface in the context of energy geostructures

Developing pathways for climate-resilient development involves integrating mitigation and adaptation actions, ensuring sustainable development [1]. A climate-resilient development can be achieved through the inclusion of effective mitigation approaches into development planning, reducing vulnerability, conserving ecosystems, and restoring ecosystems [1]. In this regard, energy geostructures are introduced as an effective mitigating approach, providing renewable energy while limiting the emission of greenhouse gases [2-4]. The operation of the system is closely linked to daily and seasonal cycles, which leads to cyclic temperature and water content fluctuations at the soil and the soil-structure interface [4, 5]. Thus, the study of the shear response of the soil–structure interface subjected to different thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) conditions is of importance. Testing techniques used to study the THM behaviour of unsaturated soils require advanced laboratory equipment, as well as protocols for correcting measured data due to errors in the test conditions and apparatus calibration. This paper presents the development of a new direct shear setup to measure the non-isothermal shear strength of the partially saturated soils and soil-structure interface. The modified setup, a unique one to the authors' knowledge, enables simultaneous control of temperature, matric suction, and mechanical stress state within the soil specimens. The operational temperature range of energy geostructures (i.e., 5°C to 50) is applied through a thermal plate, developed from corrosion-resistant stainless steel with high thermal conductivity, placed at the base of the soil specimen. Matric suction (i.e., in the range of 0 to 100 kPa) is controlled using the axis-translation technique and measured using a pressure transducer connected to the back of the top cap, incorporating the HAE disk, facilitating the measurement (Figure 1) [2, 4-6]. The direct shear setup is modified to accurately measure the shear strength and deformation characteristics of soil samples under controlled laboratory conditions. The design of the device is based on previous direct shear devices but includes several improvements to enhance its accuracy and ease of use [4, 5]. The device has been tested to measure the shear response of both soils and soil-structure interfaces, and the results were compared to those obtained using conventional direct shear devices [2, 4, 7-10]. The results indicate that the new device is accurate and reliable and represents a significant advancement in the field of soil testing.
 In this study, the interface is formed by kaolin clay, a temperature-sensitive clay, and concrete, a structural material widely used for energy geostructures [4, 11]. The soil samples were prepared by static compaction at 30% initial water content () and an initial void ratio () of 1.2. Initially, all samples were inundated with distilled water at room temperature (24°C) [4, 12], followed by sequential hydraulic (i.e., matric suction, = 0 or 70 kPa), mechanical (i.e., net normal load, =100 or 300 kPa), and thermal (i.e., temperature, =24°C or 45°C) loading of the interface. The shearing was initiated after ensuring equilibrium criteria were met. It was necessary to limit the shearing rate to 0.005mm/min and the thermal loading rate to 3°C/hr to maintain the drained condition [4, 13]. Additionally, the vertical displacements associated with hydraulic load were subjected to an equilibrium criterion of 0.025%/day strain rate [14]. As presented in Table 1, the results revealed that the apparent interface friction angle was not significantly affected by matric suction at varying temperatures, but a slight decrease has been observed upon heating at all matric suctions. The apparent adhesion increased in response to temperature increase/decrease, with a decreasing rate as suction increased, while the interface desaturation led to higher apparent adhesion at all temperatures, corresponding to peak and residual values. In interfaces subjected to identical normal stress and temperature but different matric suction values, the shear stress-shear displacement curves showed greater peak stress with increasing matric suction. Furthermore, despite the same net normal stress and matric suction, higher temperatures resulted in slightly lower peak shear stress and less contractive volume change behaviour at the interface. Non-isothermal volumetric behaviour and soil dilatancy play a significant role in governing the THM shear response of the interface [15].

City-Level Law and Action for Climate-Resilient Development in Southern Africa

AbstractThis article studies eight cities in four countries in the southern African region (Namibia, Zimbabwe, South Africa, and Botswana) to explore whether and how local governing authority has been channelled towards local climate-resilient development. The authors undertook a desk-based identification and review of available primary and secondary legal sources and normative documents while also drawing on scientific papers and policy documents for statistics and information about urbanization, climate change, politics, and governance in the selected countries. The analysis is interested in the law but is not strictly of a legal nature in the sense that the authors did not aim for a critical analysis of the regulatory detail in the relevant legal instruments. Instead, the article provides an evaluation of the political, de facto choices made by selected local governments as to how and to what extent to utilize their governing authority (legislative and executive) towards climate-resilient development. The authors explore if and how local government powers in the four southern African countries are currently leveraged for local climate action, and comment on the possible reasons for the status quo by comparing the four jurisdictions.

The role of urban transport in delivering Sustainable Development Goal 11: Learning from two Indian cities

The next wave of unprecedented urbanisation is expected to occur in South Asia and Africa, with India being the most populous country. India's urbanisation choices will influence the success of the three global agendas: New Urban Agenda, Sustainable Development Goals, and the Paris Agreement. Sustainable urban transport is vital in delivering United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 11 (SDG11) on inclusive and sustainable urbanisation. SDG11 includes dimensions such as equity, gender equality, health, employment, and climate change. Through a mixed-methods approach, the paper develops an assessment framework to investigate: ‘What are the roles of existing urban transport interventions in delivering SDG11?’ in two Indian cities: Surat (an industrial city of 5.9 million) and Udaipur (a tourist city of 0.8 million) across three interrelated transport roles: providing Inclusive Access, delivering Climate-Resilient Development, and delivering Context-Sensitive Planning. Each urban transport interaction is assigned synergy (+1), trade-off (−1) or mixed impacts (−/+1). The paper finds that current transport interventions in Surat & Udaipur largely result in trade-offs across all three themes Inclusive Access (−1 for Surat & Udaipur), Climate Vulnerability (−1 for Surat & Udaipur), and Context-Sensitive Planning (−1 for Surat & +1 for Udaipur).

Rising vulnerability of compound risk inequality to ageing and extreme heatwave exposure in global cities

Continued warming trends lead to an increasing risk of exposure to extreme heatwaves, which threaten the health of urban residents, especially the ageing population. Here, we project the spatiotemporal trend of future exposure risk across 9188 global urban settlements between 2020 and 2100 under the shared socioeconomic pathway (SSP) 2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5 scenarios. Results show that urban heatwave exposure risk increases by 619% and 1740% for SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5, respectively, and by 1642% to 5529% for the elderly. Notably, 69% of the elderly exposure risk comes from middle-income countries, where the increasing trend on the regional average is 1.2 times higher than that of high-income countries. There is an increasing trend towards greater concentration on large cities, especially in low- and lower-middle-income countries. In high-income countries, climate effects contribute 39% to 58% of increasing exposure for elderly individuals, whereas ageing effects play more prominent role in lower-income countries. This emphasizes the disproportionately higher heat-related burden for elderly individuals and inequitable trends in lower income countries. Understanding the vulnerable and priority regions in future heatwave exposure will inform adaptation strategies to support urban climate-resilient development.

Normative future visioning for city resilience and development

ABSTRACT This paper argues for normative visioning as an underdeveloped component of adaptation planning. Multi-stakeholder and normative approaches to future visioning offer generative moments when creativity can meet the power to act required for critical, including transformative, adaptation. Including normative methods with community and city actors in adaptation planning allows for alternative narratives of development to arise as a basis for deeper conversation and potential action on the root causes of vulnerability and risk. A specific visioning approach is tested for four megacities – Istanbul, Kathmandu, Nairobi and Quito. Relations between current and future states of development and resilience are found to be both aligned (congruent or contingent) and in opposition (countervailing or constrained) shaping strategy for policy setting. These data are combined with additional work from London, Kolkata, New York and Lagos to pilot a City Resilience Challenge Index (CRCI), indicating to policy-makers whether and how cities are currently moving away from, rather than towards, envisioned trajectories of vulnerability reduction and adaptation. In the future, the CRCI might provide a global tool to track the progress of cities towards climate resilient development and, by doing so, to increase ambition and galvanize action.