Climate Regulation Services Research Articles

Quantifying Marine Sedimentary Carbon: A New Spatial Analysis Approach Using Seafloor Acoustics, Imagery, and Ground-Truthing Data in Scotland

Marine sediments are important repositories of particulate organic matter, effectively burying organic carbon (OC) over geological timescales thus providing a climate regulation service. However, the spatial distribution of this marine sedimentary OC store is not well constrained. In this study we leverage a high resolution multibeam echosounder (MBES) survey taken at Loch Creran, a model fjordic site on the west coast of Scotland, to develop a new methodology for predicting the distribution of OC in surface sediments. Using an integrated approach, we combine use MBES survey, video imagery and ground-truthing data to produce a high-resolution (2 m x 2 m) map of surficial carbon and calculate a 10 cm stock. We find that the backscatter survey reliably uncovers a heterogeneous seabed and that OC correlates strongly with the MBES backscatter signal as a function of sediment composition. We estimate that there are approximately 12,346 ± 2,677 tonnes of OC held within the top 10 cm of mixed sediments across the MBES survey area (7.96 km2; 60% of the total area), upscaled to 20,577 ± 4,462 t of OC across Loch Creran (13.27 km2). Normalised by area, we find that mixed fine sediments with small fractions of sand and gravel are more effectivehold more carbon OC stores than homogenous fine sediments. This initial work proposes a novel methodological approach to using high resolution MBES surveys to improve the spatial mapping of sedimentary C carbon (C) and identification of C hotspots, enabling consideration of this resource in sedimentary carbon accounting, seabed management and climate mitigation strategies.

Economic valuation of ecosystem services from secondary tropical forests: trade-offs and implications for policy making

Natural regeneration of secondary forests can be an important source of recovery of ecosystem services (ES) critical for humanity, especially for climate change mitigation and adaptation goals. However, natural regeneration entails synergies and trade-offs across ESs and across stakeholders. To evaluate these trade-offs, we assessed the economic value of four ESs along the course of a natural regeneration process of tropical dry forests of the Pacific Coast of Mexico, and examined how this can inform the design of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) schemes incentivizing forest restoration. We estimated the monetary value of two provisioning ESs –forest products and fodder for calves–, using contingent valuation and direct market valuation methods, and two regulating ESs –carbon stocks and carbon sinks– using the voluntary carbon market prices and the social cost of carbon. We assessed these ESs in four natural regeneration stages: pasture, young secondary forest (0 to 12 years of natural regeneration), intermediate secondary forest (between 12 and 25 years of natural regeneration), and old-growth forest (more than 25 years of natural regeneration or primary forests).Results indicate that throughout the course of the natural regeneration process, there are changes in the magnitude of the trade-offs between regulating and provisioning ESs. We find a clear trade-off between regulating and provisioning ESs in the early stages of natural regeneration. However, as secondary forests grow older provisioning ESs recover, creating synergies rather than trade-offs in later stages of natural regeneration. Our results suggest a PES aiming to increase climate regulation services should focus on the carbon sink potential of young and intermediate secondary forests, as this would provide the greatest additionality and mitigation. We also showed the relevance of using a portfolio of economic valuation methods that can include a wider range of values for understanding landholders’ preferences. While with direct market valuation methods we found that young secondary forests have the lowest economic value as compared to other natural regeneration stages, contingent valuation showed that landholders value young secondary forests the most because of their potential – future – land use (i.e. the possibility of converting it back to pasture).

Modeling suggests fossil fuel emissions have been driving increased land carbon uptake since the turn of the 20th Century

Terrestrial vegetation removes CO2 from the atmosphere; an important climate regulation service that slows global warming. This 119 Pg C per annum transfer of CO2 into plants—gross primary productivity (GPP)—is the largest land carbon flux globally. While understanding past and anticipated future GPP changes is necessary to support carbon management, the factors driving long-term changes in GPP are largely unknown. Here we show that 1901 to 2010 changes in GPP have been dominated by anthropogenic activity. Our dual constraint attribution approach provides three insights into the spatiotemporal patterns of GPP change. First, anthropogenic controls on GPP change have increased from 57% (1901 decade) to 94% (2001 decade) of the vegetated land surface. Second, CO2 fertilization and nitro gen deposition are the most important drivers of change, 19.8 and 11.1 Pg C per annum (2001 decade) respectively, especially in the tropics and industrialized areas since the 1970’s. Third, changes in climate have functioned as fertilization to enhance GPP (1.4 Pg C per annum in the 2001 decade). These findings suggest that, from a land carbon balance perspective, the Anthropocene began over 100 years ago and that global change drivers have allowed GPP uptake to keep pace with anthropogenic emissions.

The Irrigation Cooling Effect as a Climate Regulation Service of Agroecosystems

Agroecosystems provide a range of benefits to society and the economy, which we call ecosystem services (ES). These services can be evaluated on the basis of environmental and socioeconomic indicators. The irrigation cooling effect (ICE), given its influence on the land surface temperature (LST), is an indicator of climate regulation services from agroecosystems. In this context, the objective of this study is to quantify the ICE in agroecosystems at the local scale. The agroecosystem of citrus cultivation in Campo de Cartagena (Murcia, Spain) is used as a case study. Once the LST was retrieved by remote sensing images for 216 plots, multivariate regression methods were used to identify the factors that explain ICE. The use of a geographically weighted regression (GWR) model is proposed, instead of ordinary least squares, as it offsets the spatial dependence and gives a better fit. The GWR explains 78% of the variability in the LST, by means of three variables: the vegetation index, the water index of the crop, and the altitude. Thus, the effects of the change in land use on the LST due to restrictions on the availability of water (up to 1.22 °C higher for rain-fed crops) are estimated. The trade-offs between ICE and the other ES are investigated by using the irrigation water required to reduce the temperature. This work shows the magnitude of the climate regulation service generated by irrigated citrus and enables its quantification in agroecosystems with similar characteristics.

Modelling the relationships between urban land cover change and local climate regulation to estimate urban heat island effect

Urban land covers affect the thermal characteristics of the city, such as the urban heat island (UHI) effect, potentially increasing energy demand to maintain comfortable indoor and outdoor temperatures. As the land patterns change, the capacity of the landscape to regulate the UHI can change. The aim of this paper is to explore how simulating land cover changes (LCC) may affect UHI using an ecosystem service matrix approach. A LCC model, illustrated in the case study of Lisbon, Portugal, was implemented to estimate the UHI effects over time starting from the modelling of land cover changes associated with the supply of local climate regulation service. Our results show that the capacity of urban landscape to mitigate the UHI effect has decreased since 1990, and will continue to decrease slightly until 2022 although more smoothly than between 1990 and 2000. This is because no substantial land cover changes have occurred after 2000 that required the transition between highest to lowest ecosystem service supplier landscapes. The proposed modelling approach may be refined and used to aiding the decision making process for urban planners in the placement of built structures and green spaces that have the capacity to regulate local climate.

中国森林面积变化及其温室气体储量模拟研究

PDF HTML阅读 XML下载 导出引用 引用提醒 中国森林面积变化及其温室气体储量模拟研究 DOI: 10.5846/stxb201812312853 作者: 作者单位: 作者简介: 通讯作者: 中图分类号: 基金项目: 国家自然科学基金项目（41671425，41401504） Modeling greenhouse gas sequestration potential of forest change in China Author: Affiliation: Fund Project: 摘要 | 图/表 | 访问统计 | 参考文献 | 相似文献 | 引证文献 | 资源附件 | 文章评论 摘要:陆地生态系统承载的温室气体对全球碳循环及气候调节服务意义重大，森林生态系统是陆地生态系统的重要组成部分，量化森林对温室气体的储量有利于从生物地球化学角度研究全球变化问题。针对中国森林生态系统承载的温室气体在大尺度上无法有效量化的问题，基于2000与2010年两期土地利用数据和前人的相关研究，通过一个生态系统温室气体值模型，模拟得到中国森林生态系统承载的三大主要温室气体（CO2，CH4，N2O）的量。结果表明：（1）中国森林生态系统的面积从2000年的224.3×106 hm2略增到2010的224.6×106 hm2；其中落叶阔叶林、常绿阔叶林和针叶林的面积减少，而混交林与灌木林的面积增加；（2）对应地，2000和2010年中国森林的温室气体储量分别为154.03和154.37 Pg CO2当量，10年间增加了0.34 Pg CO2当量。其中，常绿针叶林、常绿阔叶林、落叶阔叶林在研究时段内的GHG储量减少，而混交林和灌木林增加。分区来看，温室气体储量增长较多的区域有华北、西北与西南地区，分别增长了0.13 Pg CO2、0.12 Pg CO2与0.15 Pg CO2当量。温室气体储量减少较明显的是东北地区，减少了约0.1 Pg CO2当量。本研究分别用本地化参数和模型自带参数，首次尝试对中国森林生态系统的GHG储量进行了模拟研究，并与他人的研究做了对比分析。研究同时发现，当前的相关研究存在很多不确定性，未来需要多源数据和方法提升精度，而模型模拟是一个重要的手段。 Abstract:Greenhouse gases carried by terrestrial ecosystems are of great significance to the global carbon cycle and climate regulation services. Forests are an important part of terrestrial ecosystems and quantifying the greenhouse gas sequestration potential of forests can analyze global change directly from a biogeochemical perspective. However, greenhouse gases carried by China's forests have not currently be effectively quantified on a large scale. In this study, based on land use data of 2000 and 2010, and previous studies on forest carbon storage, we simulated the sequestration potentials of three main greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O) in forests in China through a greenhouse gas value model. The results showed that:(1) China's forest area increased slightly from 2.243 million km2 in 2000 to 2.246 million km2 in 2010; among them, areas of deciduous broad-leaved, evergreen broad-leaved, and coniferous forests all decreased, whereas the areas of mixed and shrub forests increased; (2) correspondingly, the sequestration potential of greenhouse gas for China's forests was equivalent to 154.03 and 154.37 Pg CO2 in 2000 and 2010, respectively, increasing by about 0.34 Pg CO2 during our study period. The sequestration potential in evergreen coniferous, evergreen broad-leaved, and deciduous broad-leaved forests decreased during 2000-2010, whereas the sequestration potential in mixed and shrub forests increased. Regarding spatial patterns, sequestration potentials in North, Northwest, and Southwest China all increased largely, with an increase of 0.13, 0.12, and 0.15 Pg CO2, respectively. The sequestration potential in Northeast China was obviously decreased, with a reduction of about 0.1 Pg CO2. This study used the localization parameters and model's own parameters to simulate the sequestration potential of greenhouse gases in China's forests for the first time, and compared our simulated results with those from others research. This study also found that various definitions and data sources on forests had many problems. In the future, it is necessary to refine the model parameters within ecosystems under a unified framework and consider using multi-resource data to improve the accuracy of sequestration potential. Model simulation should be used as an important and effective study method. 参考文献 相似文献 引证文献

2000-2015年祁连山南坡生态系统服务价值时空变化

PDF HTML阅读 XML下载 导出引用 引用提醒 2000-2015年祁连山南坡生态系统服务价值时空变化 DOI: 10.5846/stxb201811292598 作者: 作者单位: 作者简介: 通讯作者: 中图分类号: 基金项目: 国家自然科学基金重点项目（41730752）；中国科学院“西部之光”人才培养计划项目；青海省创新平台建设专项（2017-ZJ-Y20） Spatio-temporal dynamics of ecosystem service value in the southern slope of Qilian Mountain from 2000 to 2015 Author: Affiliation: Fund Project: National Natural Science Foundation of China (Key Program 41730752）； 摘要 | 图/表 | 访问统计 | 参考文献 | 相似文献 | 引证文献 | 资源附件 | 文章评论 摘要:祁连山是我国西部重要的生态安全屏障和生物多样性保护优先区域，其中南坡地区是水源涵养服务核心区，但目前对该区域生态系统服务时空分布及动态变化仍缺乏深入认识。利用遥感技术和生态系统服务理论，综合多源数据产品，借鉴生态系统服务计算方法，对包括土壤保持等7个生态系统服务类型展开功能及价值核算，对祁连山南坡土壤保持等7个生态系统服务类型2000-2015年间的时空分异及动态展开监测和评估，研究表明：（1）近16年来祁连山南坡生态系统服务平均单位面积价值为76.27万元/km2，总价值为658.74亿元，且调节气候、水源涵养和调节空气质量服务构成了研究区生态系统服务的主体。（2）高寒草甸和高寒草原的生态系统服务总价值最高，而森林和灌丛的单位面积服务价值最高；天峻县和祁连县的生态系统服务总价值最高，而海晏县和刚察县的单位面积服务价值最高。（3）近16年来祁连山南坡生态系统服务价值呈增长趋势，其中调节气候和调节空气质量服务价值的增速最快，且增长区域主要集中在研究区北部祁连县和天峻县境内。（4）研究区东部山区、南部环湖区以及中部湿地区能够提供多项复合生态服务功能，应作为生态保护和管理的重点。研究结果能为祁连山生态红线制定及国家公园建设提供理论依据和技术支撑。 Abstract:Qilian Mountains are important ecological security barrier and priority area for biodiversity protection in western China, of which the southern slope area is the core area for water conservation services. However, at present, there is still a lack of in-depth understanding of the temporal and spatial distribution and dynamic changes of ecosystem services in this region. This paper used remote sensing technology and ecosystem service theory, and integrated multi-source data products and ecosystem service calculation methods to monitor and evaluate the spatio-temporal variation and dynamics of the values of seven ecosystem service types in the southern slope of Qilian Mountains (SSQM). The results showed that (1) in the past 16 years, the average unit area value of ecosystem service on the SSQM was 762700 yuan/km2, with a total value of 65.87 billion yuan. The climate regulation, water conservation, and air quality regulation services were the dominant service types. (2) The alpine meadow and alpine steppe had the largest total ecosystem service value (ESV), while forest and shrubland had the largest service value per unit area. Within the study area, the total ESV of Tianjun County and Qilian County was the largest, while the unit area value in Haiyan County and Gangcha County was the largest. (3) In the past 16 years, the ESV on the southern slope of Qilian Mountains has shown an increasing trend, of which the service value of climate regulation and air quality regulation had the fastest growth rate. The growth areas were mainly concentrated in Qilian County and Tianjun County in the northern part of the research area. (4) The mountain area in the east, the Qinghai lake belt in the south and the wetland area in the center can provide multiple composite ecological service functions and should be taken as the focus of the ecological protection and management. The results can provide the theoretical basis and technical support for establishment of Qilian mountain ecological red line and the construction of national parks. 参考文献 相似文献 引证文献

Spatiotemporal characteristics in ecosystem service value and its interaction with human activities in Xinjiang, China

Abstract Human activities are becoming increasingly diverse and disordered, especially in arid areas, which affect ecosystem services more obviously. Conversely, ecosystem services also impose certain constraints on human. In this paper, we employed the model of ecosystem service value (ESV) assessment and grey relational degree, to reveal the spatiotemporal variation characteristics of ecosystem service value in Xinjiang and its interaction with human activities. The results showed that, during 2000–2015 the value of food production services (FPV) showed an upward trend, while the value of climate regulation services (CRV), gas regulation services (GRV), raw material production services (RMPV) and recreation services (RSV) showed a downward trend. The value of hydrological regulation services (HRV) showed a trend of first decreasing and then rising, while the value of waste disposal services (WDV) showed a trend of first increasing, then decreasing and then increasing. Spatial change showed that the services value of Kashi and Aksu Prefecture declined significantly, while Altay and Tacheng Prefecture increased significantly. In Xinjiang, human activities had a strong interaction with ecosystem services. Agricultural activities (0.989) and social development activities (0.844) had the greatest impact on changes in ecosystem services, especially agricultural water consumption (0.984) and total population at year-end (0.965). Hydrological regulation services (0.8179) had the greatest restriction on social and economic development. Combining the spatiotemporal changes in ecosystem service value and their variation with human activities are significant to formulate ecological policy and coordinate sustainable development.

Winter weather controls net influx of atmospheric CO2 on the north-west European shelf

Shelf seas play an important role in the global carbon cycle, absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and exporting carbon (C) to the open ocean and sediments. The magnitude of these processes is poorly constrained, because observations are typically interpolated over multiple years. Here, we used 298500 observations of CO2 fugacity (fCO2) from a single year (2015), to estimate the net influx of atmospheric CO2 as 26.2 ± 4.7 Tg C yr−1 over the open NW European shelf. CO2 influx from the atmosphere was dominated by influx during winter as a consequence of high winds, despite a smaller, thermally-driven, air-sea fCO2 gradient compared to the larger, biologically-driven summer gradient. In order to understand this climate regulation service, we constructed a carbon-budget supplemented by data from the literature, where the NW European shelf is treated as a box with carbon entering and leaving the box. This budget showed that net C-burial was a small sink of 1.3 ± 3.1 Tg C yr−1, while CO2 efflux from estuaries to the atmosphere, removed the majority of river C-inputs. In contrast, the input from the Baltic Sea likely contributes to net export via the continental shelf pump and advection (34.4 ± 6.0 Tg C yr−1).

Where’s the Carbon: Exploring the Spatial Heterogeneity of Sedimentary Carbon in Mid-Latitude Fjords

Fjords are recognized as globally significant hotspots for the burial and long-term storage of marine and terrestrially derived organic carbon (OC). By trapping and locking away OC over geological timescales, fjord sediments provide a potentially important yet largely overlooked climate regulation service. Currently, our understanding of the spatial distribution of OC within the surficial sediments of fjords is limited and this potentially implies an overestimation in the global estimates of OC buried in fjords as current calculation methods assume a homogeneous seabed. Using the mid-latitude fjords of Scotland and Ireland as a natural laboratory, we have developed a multi-tiered methodological approach utilizing a spectrum of data ranging from freely available chart data to the latest multibeam geophysics to determine and map the seabed sediment type. Targeted sampling of fjord sediments was undertaken to establish a calibration of sediment type against OC content. The results show that fjord sediments are highly heterogeneous both in sediment type and OC content. Utilizing the tiered mapping outputs, first order estimates of the surficial (top 10 cm) sediment OC stock within Scottish fjords (4.16 ± 0.5 Mt OC) and Irish systems (2.09 ± 0.26 Mt OC), when normalized for area the surficial sediments of Scottish and Irish fjords hold 2027 ± 367 and 1844 ± 94 respectively far exceed estimates for the continental shelf, again highlighting fjord sediments as hotspots for the capture of OC. This tiered approach to mapping sediment type is ideally suited to areas of the marine environment where data availability and quality is a limiting issue. Further understanding of the spatial heterogeneity of these sediments provides a foundation to reevaluate global fjord OC burial rates and to better understand the role of fjord sediments in regulating the global climate.

Urban sprawl decreases the value of ecosystem services and intensifies the supply scarcity of ecosystem services in China

Land use and land cover changes, particularly land take by urbanization, can degrade ecosystems and their capacity to provide humans with numerous benefits, namely, ecosystem services (ES). Many studies on the relationship between urbanization and the supply and demand of ES have been conducted. However, studies on the process and trend of the conflict between ES supply and demand, as well as the spatial differences, are lacking. Developing countries around the world are experiencing rapid urbanization. The aim of this study was to summarize the relationship between urbanization and the supply and demand of ES in China. China has experienced rapid urbanization since the reform and opening up, and the urban population reached 56.10% in 2015. Urban sprawl was twice that of population expansion, and led to a loss in value of ES. We calculated the loss in value of the five ES (food production, water conservation, climate regulation, habitat support and cultural service) due to the increase in construction area by means of spatial analysis. The total loss was US $110.95 billion in China from 1985 to 2015. This result indicated that the increases in construction land area had a negative impact on ES. At the same time, there was a conflict between the scarcity index of ES and their loss in value. The leading cause of this conflict was that economic development was highly dependent on the area of urban construction land. The results suggested that we should adopt “intensive” and “compact” strategic development models, quantify the value of ES, focus on the conflict between the loss in value and ES supply, and try our best to reduce the decline in ES in the future.

The threat of energy diversification to a bioregion: a landscape-level analysis of current and future impacts on the US Chihuahuan Desert

Landscapes are being impacted by rapid change, especially by diversifying energy industries. As this process occurs, habitats with little development and fragmentation are now facing increasing anthropogenic change. We studied current patterns of land use and ecosystem services costs of energy development and predicted future impacts in the US Chihuahuan Desert. We measured land developed and modified by oil and gas, wind, and solar industries and mapped levels of development and fragmentation across the US Chihuahuan Desert, followed by an estimation of annual energy-related ecosystem services costs. Based on energy resource estimates, we then projected future risk of development in the bioregion. The oil and gas industry has developed and fragmented about 27% (58,000 km2) of the US Chihuahuan Desert. Wind and solar comprise small amounts of development and fragmentation. We estimated annual ecosystem services costs of all energy industries at 180 million USD, concentrated in climate regulation, raw materials, and cultural services. Two-thirds of the desert remains relatively unfragmented in a contiguous corridor along the western portion of the bioregion. However, this corridor is threatened by energy expansion, especially wind and solar energy. With this expansion, the bioregion could become highly fragmented and continuity of habitats compromised. We suggest conservation efforts focus on the remaining corridor, while future energy development should occur in areas already highly modified by energy infrastructure. With continuing expansion and diversification of global energy sources, our findings in the Chihuahuan Desert could represent threats to other ecologically valuable bioregions that have historically experienced little industrial development.

Stand structure drives disparities in carbon storage in northern hardwood-conifer forests

Elements of forest structure are fundamentally associated with an array of ecosystem services and habitat characteristics. However, forest structure varies, in particular, through interactions with natural and human disturbances. Both variation in structural characteristics and associated relationships with ecosystem service outcomes have been poorly explored in mature, secondary forests redeveloped since 19th century agricultural abandonment in the eastern United States. Our study addressed this uncertainty focusing on carbon storage as an important climate regulation service. We conducted an inventory of 45 plots sharing similar land use history (i) to identify differences in forest structure, and (ii) to investigate links between stand structure and aboveground carbon storage. We derived 19 structural attributes and used these in Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering (AHC) to categorize structurally different groups. Subsequently, we analyzed carbon density in each cluster and employed a random forest algorithm to derive partial effects of structural attributes on carbon storage.We found a distinctive disparity in forest structure inferred from two hardwood-dominated and one softwood-dominated clusters. Nine variables (cavity tree density, conifer ratio, foliage height index, gap area, live basal area, species diversity, variation in heights and diameters, and vertical shrub cover) explained significant differences between these clusters. Carbon storage varied markedly, and was highest in the softwood cluster. Structural complexity was overall positively associated with carbon storage, whereas this effect was more distinctive in hardwood compared to softwood-dominated forests. In particular, five variables exhibited a positive (conifer ratio, diameter variation, dead basal area, large live trees, and live basal area), one a negative (live tree density), and two (dead tree density and species diversity) a mixed relationship with carbon storage. Despite only moderate variation in climatic conditions across the investigated plots, we found a strong sensitivity of carbon storage to mean annual temperature. In contrast, annual precipitation and topography had no effect on carbon storage. The link between structural complexity and carbon storage suggests a high potential to actively increase forest carbon density. Based on our findings, a variety of options are available to enhance forest structure, and thus to improve carbon storage in managed forest ecosystems. These include, for instance, increasing the variability in tree dimensions and fostering large live trees which may improve niche complementarity. Increasing structural complexity in managed forest stands may thus improve buffering of potentially negative impacts of climate change on carbon stocks.

Net Global Warming Potential of Spring Wheat Cropping Systems in a Semiarid Region

Investigations of global warming potential (GWP) of semiarid cropping systems are needed to ascertain agriculture’s contributions to climate regulation services. This study sought to determine net GWP for three semiarid cropping systems under no-tillage management in the northern Great Plains of North America: spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)—fallow (SW-F), continuous spring wheat (CSW) and spring wheat—safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.)—rye (Secale cereale L.) (SW-S-R). Management records, coupled with published carbon dioxide (CO2) emission estimates, were used to determine emissions from production inputs and field operations. Static chamber methodology was used to measure soil-atmosphere methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) fluxes over a 3-year period and changes in profile soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks were determined over 18 years. Carbon dioxide emissions associated with production inputs and field operations were greatest for CSW, intermediate for SW-S-R and lowest for SW-F. All cropping systems were minor CH4 sinks (≤0.5 kg CH4-C ha−1 yr−1) and moderate N2O sources (1.0 to 2.8 kg N2O-N ha−1 yr−1). No differences in SOC stocks were observed among cropping systems (P = 0.78), nor did SOC stocks change significantly from baseline conditions (P = 0.82). Summing across factors, net GWP was positive for SW-F and CSW, implying net greenhouse gas (GHG) emission to the atmosphere, while net GWP for SW-S-R was negative, implying net GHG uptake. Net GWP, however, did not differ among cropping systems (P = 0.17). Management practices that concurrently improve N use efficiency and increase SOC stocks are needed for semiarid cropping systems to be net GHG sinks.

Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) practices in smallholder agriculture; emerging evidence from rural Pakistan

Ecosystems and biodiversity provide many critical life support functions including clean water, food, climate regulation, and recreational services. Despite its significant values biodiversity in Pakistan is being lost at a significant rate particularly due to agriculture intensification. The intensive agriculture system leading to serious environmental damages including biodiversity loss, water pollution, soil degradation, disruption of carbon sink and increase in GHG emissions. There is a growing recognition of promoting Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) strategies in smallholder agriculture; however, there is limited information about the existing EbA strategies by smallholder farmers and factors that influence the adoption of these practices. This article addresses research gap by using a survey data of 360 households from three districts of Pakistan. We explored existing EbA practices used by farmers and factors associated with the use of these practices. The list of ecosystem-based adaptation practices (EbA) was created on the basis of literature review and with the assistance of expert opinions. This study identified a number of risks associated with ecosystem degradation as perceived by smallholder farmers such as salinization, water pollution, soil erosion and decline in crop productivity. Due to overexploitation of underground water and extensive use of external inputs for agriculture use, the majority of farmers reported decline in water quality and depth of the underground water table. We used a double hurdle model for adoption and intensity of adaptation practices. The results show that farmers' social capital and institutional access increase the probability and intensity of adoption of EbA practices. The study suggests that a majority of smallholder farmers in Pakistan are already using certain EbA strategies, but there is still scope for larger implementation. Institutional policies and non-government organizations (NGOs) can increase broader use of EbA strategies by facilitating farmers’ access to subsidized tree nurseries, farmer-to-farmer information and promoting EbA policies in different socioeconomic and agro-ecological context.

Valuing urban ecosystem services in sustainable brownfield redevelopment

Urban environments provide opportunities for greater resource efficiency and the fostering of urban ecosystems. Brownfield areas are a typical example of underused land resources. Brownfield redevelopment projects that include green infrastructure allow for further ecosystems to be accommodated in urban environments. Green infrastructure also deliver important urban ecosystem services (UES) to local residents, which can greatly contribute to improving quality of life in cities. In this case study, we quantify and assess the economic value of five UES for a brownfield redevelopment project in Antwerp, Belgium. The assessment is carried out using the “Nature Value Explorer” modelling tool. The case includes three types of green infrastructure (green corridor, infiltration gullies and green roofs) primarily intended to connect nature reserves on the urban periphery and to avoid surface runoff. The green infrastructure also provides air filtration, climate regulation, carbon sequestration and recreation ecosystem services. The value of recreation far exceeds other values, including the value of avoided runoff. The case study raises crucial questions as to whether existing UES valuation approaches adequately account for the range of UES provided and whether such approaches can be improved to achieve more accurate and reliable value estimates in future analyses.

Carbon sequestration and methane emissions along a microtopographic gradient in a tropical Andean peatland

Tropical alpine peatlands are among the least studied wetlands types on earth. Their important ecosystem services at local and regional scope are currently threatened by climate and land use changes. Recent studies in these ecosystems suggest their importance to the provision of climate regulation services, prompting a better understanding of the underlying functions and their variability at ecosystem scales. The objective of this study is to determine the variability of methane (CH4) fluxes and carbon (C) sequestration within a tropical alpine peatland in three locations along a microtopographic gradient and its associated plant diversity. These locations accounted for: 1) hummocks, found mostly near the edge of the peat with a water table below the soil surface, 2) lawns, in the transition zone, with a water-table near the soil surface, and 3) hollows, permanently flooded with a water table above the soil surface, composed of small patches of open water intermingled with unconsolidated hummocks that surface the water level. Results indicate that CH4 flux is lowest in the lawns, while C sequestration is highest. Conversely, the hummock and hollow have higher CH4 flux and lower C sequestration. In addition, plant diversity in the lawns is higher than in the hummock and hollow location. Dryer conditions brought by current climate change in the northern Andes are expected to lower the water tables in the peatland. This change is expected to drive a change in CH4 flux and C sequestration at the lawns, currently dominating the peatland, towards values more similar to those measured in the hummocks. This decrease may also represent a change towards the lower plant diversity that characterized the hummock. Such changes will reduce the ratio of C sequestration:CH4 flux signifying the reduction of resilience and increment of vulnerability of the climate-regulating service to further perturbations.

Model-Based Evaluation of Land Management Strategies with Regard to Multiple Ecosystem Services

In agroecosystem management, conflicts between various services such as food provision and nutrient regulation are common. This study examined the trade-offs between selected ecosystem services such as food provision, water quantity and quality, erosion and climate regulations in an agricultural catchment in Western Switzerland. The aim was to explore the existing land use conflicts by a shift in land use and management strategy following two stakeholder-defined scenarios based on either land sparing or land sharing concepts. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was used to build an agro-hydrologic model of the region, which was calibrated and validated based on daily river discharge, monthly nitrate and annual crop yield, considering uncertainties associated with land management set up and model parameterization. The results show that land sparing scenario has the highest agricultural benefit, while also the highest nitrate concentration and GHG emissions. The land sharing scenario improves water quality and climate regulation services and reduces food provision. The management changes considered in the two land use scenarios did not seem to reduce the conflict but only led to a shift in trade-offs. Water quantity and erosion regulation remain unaffected by the two scenarios.

Mapping and comparing ecosystem service indicators of global climate regulation in Schleswig-Holstein, Northern Germany

Estimating and mapping Ecosystem Services (ESS) is a primary basis for reasonable ecosystem managing policies. Assessing ESS and optimising the accuracy of ESS assessment is relevant to identify suitable indicators. This study aims to gain a better understanding of global climate regulation service assessments resulting from the application of several indicators that have been derived based on Co-Ordination of INformation on the Environment (CORINE) land cover classes. Therefore, 17 CORINE land cover classes were used to evaluate their effects on the distributions of the annual total Gross Primary Production (GPP), the annual total Net Primary Production (NPP), Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) and Carbon Stocks (CS) in the German federal state Schleswig-Holstein. In addition to the spatial distributions, correlations of distinct quantitative indicators (annual total GPP, annual total NPP, SOC and CS) and a qualitative indicator of Global Climate Regulation (GCR) derived from the ecosystem service matrix method were analysed. We found that qualitative and quantitative indicators of the global climate regulation service had significant correlations based on the comparison analysis of all indicators. The differences in mapping the service with the five indicators resulted from different strategies of the reclassified land covers. In addition, the distinct areas among the land cover classes contributed to the differences in global climate regulation mapping. The interrelations among the annual total GPP, the annual total NPP and statistical data on total harvest of different agricultural products also correlated significantly. Based on the results, GPP, NPP, SOC, CS and GCR are available indicators of global climate regulation service in Schleswig-Holstein. Nevertheless, we especially recommend CS as the indicator owning to its high accuracy in assessments. The indicators and methodology in our study can also be applied to other researches targeted with evaluating global climate regulation service.

Developed-developing world partnerships for sustainable development (3): Reducing carbon sequestration uncertainties in south Indian tropical dry evergreen forest

Climate regulation services provided by tropical dry evergreen forest (TDEF), a threatened habitat of India’s Coromandel Coast, appear significant due to high carbon assimilation rates. International markets for climate regulation represent an ‘anchor service’ potentially promoting TDEF restoration, co-beneficially generating multiple linked ecosystem services. Understanding the forest type and carbon sequestration rate is essential to underpin these markets. Literature suggests that TDEF is a broad categorisation of forest types shaped by environmental conditions and human pressures, a plastic biome rather than a definitive vegetation type, though regionally representative if now highly fragmented. Previous estimates of carbon sequestration potential in restored TDEF were found to be flawed, calculated from incorrectly stated units in a source paper. Structured literature review confirms the sparsity of relevant literature, though the distinctive nature of TDEF makes data transfer from other forest types unreliable. From the limited literature, carbon sequestration potential from restoration of TDEF is of the order of 292 tC ha−1 (1071 tCO2e ha−1), subject to multiple stated assumptions and significant uncertainty that is unquantifiable based on limited data. Further research is required to quantify TDEF carbon sequestration and additional ecosystem services, expanding potential market-based restoration and informing optimal land use policies and practices.