Environmental Migration Research Articles

Climate Refugees: Global, Local and Critical Approaches

Climate Refugees: Global, Local and Critical Approaches, edited by Simon Behrman and Avidan Kent, is a volume in the Earth System Governance series. It follows several publications by the editors on ‘climate refugees’, including an earlier volume (‘Climate Refugees’: Beyond the Legal Impasse? Routledge 2018) with some of the same contributors. Global, Local and Critical Approaches begins with the editors’ ‘Alternative Introduction’, which motivates the volume in three ways. First, the editors emphasize the importance of understanding recent international developments that provide momentum for further action on climate change and human mobility (p 3). Secondly, they aim to include ‘local perspectives’ that ‘connect wider, global developments with movements on the micro level’ (p 2). Thirdly, they call for critical approaches that ‘consider whether we are heading in the right direction, using the most appropriate fora and strategies, or whether the right actors are leading it’ (p 7). Following the introduction, the volume is divided into four parts. The first looks broadly at global governance of climate-related displacement, the second explores the issue through various aspects of international law, the third turns to regional and local perspectives and solutions, and the final part focuses on critical approaches. There are 19 chapters, written by a total of 27 contributors who work in academia, the judiciary, non-governmental or international organizations, or as practising lawyers. This serves the volume well, bringing together a range of voices and perspectives that allows the reader to consider different, sometimes contrasting, approaches.

Environment: Protection of Environmental Migrants in Italy in Light of the Latest Jurisprudential Developments

Environment: Protection of Environmental Migrants in Italy in Light of the Latest Jurisprudential Developments

THE LEGAL STATUS AND LEGAL PROTECTION TOWARDS CLIMATE REFUGEES UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW: A STUDY OF IOANE TEITIOTA CASE

This study aims to examine the legal status of climate refugees in international law according to the Ioane Teitiota case and how international law in general protects climate refugees. This study is a normative legal research. The types of approach used are statute, case, and conceptual approaches. The legal materials of this study comprise of primary, secondary, and tertiery legal materials. In collecting data this study used the library research data collection technique. The analysis technique used is the inductive reasoning method. The results of this study reveal that the 1951 Refugee Convention is unable to accommodate climate refugees. However, UN Human Rights Committee in its reccomendation acknowledges the effects of climate change as one of the determining factor for the affected persons to seek asylum in other countries which triggers the enforcement of non-refoulement principle. The protection under international law towards climate refugees derive from state obligation to comply with the non-refoulement principle, ad hoc aids from other states influenced by Nansen Initiative’s Protection Agenda, and the tangible protections provided by UNHCR and its cooperation with local authorities.

Do climatic factors induce rural migration? Empirical evidence from cotton farmers in Benin

AbstractSustainable agriculture is essential for food security, which can sometimes be undermined by rural migration triggered by many factors, including climate change. This article aims to analyze its effects on the dynamic of rural migration. Using a database of 623 agricultural households, a multivariate probit model (MVP) was estimated. The results show that regardless of the nature of migration, variables related to climate factors positively and significantly affect decisions to move. In addition, other non‐climatic variables relevant to environmental migration are cattle transhumance, which creates conflicts between herders and farmers, along with poor access to agricultural credit, agricultural and off‐farm income. Gender, age, household size, accessibility to educational and health facilities in the area of origin and experience in agricultural production must be considered. Emphasis should be placed on agricultural policies aimed at diversifying the income sources of rural households in developing countries. The study highlights the importance of both farm and non‐farm income in controlling migration. In the case of our study area, it is the combination of livestock and agriculture that seems to respond best. Producers are encouraged to diversify crops and, during periods of climatic disruption, the priority of households should be based on the production of food crops for subsistence.

Who is the climate‐induced trapped figure?

AbstractMany will remember the 1990s alarmist narratives of how a human tide of up to a billion climate refugees would flood “our” borders by 2050. By 2011, a new character joined the discourse: the trapped figure. No longer would climatically vulnerable people be forced to move, they could also end up immobile. This review examines the narratives that surround the trapped figure. The article highlights the trapped figure's (i) characterisation, (ii) geography, and (iii) storytellers. The material includes the 2011 Foresight Report, 64 English peer‐reviewed journal articles, and seven UNFCCC policy reports. The textual analysis furthers our understanding of the values that shape the meaning of the trapped figure within the wider discursive economy. Out of the 64 articles, 48 located the trapped figure in Asia, while 34 placed the figure in Africa. Meanwhile, the majority of articles—62 in total—were written by scholars based at European research institutes. The study shows that the trapped figure, much as the mythical climate refugee and migrant, is constructed as both a victim in need of rescuing and as an ambiguous security threat. It is ethically problematic that planned relocation was often put forward as an effective tool to “move” the figure out of harm's way. The review also found a range of binary opposites in the discourse on trapped populations, including those of order–disorder, freedom–unfreedom, and victim–savior. This suggests that however well‐intentioned the liberal discourse on trapped populations appear, it remains embedded in power relations which demands for critical scrutiny.This article is categorized under: Social Status of Climate Change Knowledge > Sociology/Anthropology of Climate Knowledge Climate and Development > Sustainability and Human Well‐Being Perceptions, Behavior, and Communication of Climate Change > Perceptions of Climate Change Climate, Nature, and Ethics > Ethics and Climate Change

Temporary environmental migration and child truancy: An investigation among hard-to-reach families in Bangladesh

Temporary environmental migration and child truancy: An investigation among hard-to-reach families in Bangladesh

Moving beyond Refugee Law: Putting Principles on Climate Mobility into Practice

It was a sunny Sydney afternoon in late 2006 when the phone call came through from a community radio station. Would I do an interview about ‘environmental refugees’? Sure, that’s easy, I thought. There’s no such thing. As an international refugee lawyer, my touchstone was the 1951 Refugee Convention. As we know, on its face, people fleeing environmental impacts don’t meet the definition of a refugee. Furthermore, a number of court cases over the years had expressly held that the Refugee Convention did not extend to people fleeing disasters or other ‘natural’ hazards. But this radio interview planted a seed that was to become the roots of my future work – what legal protection does exist for people displaced in the context of disasters, environmental degradation, and climate change? Are there truly legal gaps, or are there gaps in our thinking about how existing legal frameworks might apply? And is refugee law – or even international protection – the appropriate lens through which to view the issue? What other bodies of law and policy might also be relevant?

Human migration and Water

Background: Historically, nomads and pastoralists seeking water and food for their cattle were frequently associated with the concept of water migration. Whereas the largest refugee flows since the Second World War is currently occurring because of water scarcity. One of the most critical worldwide concerns nowadays is water-related issues and their associated migration. Methodology: The research is supported by secondary materials that are found in reputable journals and web pages. Results: Due to the ongoing climate change brought on by environmental migration factors such as water contamination or land degradation, millions of people are now facing various water emergencies. Ten percent of the increase in global migration is attributed to water shortages. Global water stress is already at extremely high levels in 17 countries, which are home to 25% of the world's population. Climate change is hastening this issue. Migration is more affected by a lack of water than by an abundance of it. Conclusion: Around 2040, the threat to humanity from increased water risk will be at its highest. The crisis could turn violent, triggering both forced and voluntary migration. In deduction, the study focuses on pertinent socio-economic and migratory issues while also examining well-known cases of water degradation.

Welcoming climate refugees to the United States: Do attitudes depend on refugee origins, numbers, or permanence?

Climate change will drive migration both within and across nations' borders, requiring some temporary and permanent resettlement. Despite the relative novelty of – and growing need for – climate-driven migration, it is unknown whether or how support for climate refugees' plight differs to other refugees. We examine attitudes of people living in the United States (N = 1765) towards refugee policy that experimentally differs in three respects: the type of refugees (international climate refugees, internal climate refugees, or refugees of war), the length of their stay (permanent or temporary), and their numbers (capped or increasing annually). While specific discussion about climate refugee policy cites fears of ‘opening the floodgates’, we found no evidence that people were reluctant to support climate refugees when their numbers were going to increase each year compared to when they would remain capped. Instead, ratings did not depend on refugee numbers or refugee permanence. None of these factors interacted, indicating that resistance to migration is contingent only on the group: Proposals to support international climate refugees were supported less than proposals to support internal climate refugees or refugees of war. Responses to a question asking which countries participants expected international climate refugees to relocate from suggests a wide variety of expected origins, and these geographic origins may shape ratings of support and perceived threat to the economy and culture if refugees resettle in the United States. Overall, our findings highlight the greater support and sympathy afforded to groups already living in the United States.

Prediction study on the distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their halogenated derivatives in the atmospheric particulate phase

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their halogenated derivatives (X-PAHs), which generally produced from photochemical and thermal reactions of parent PAHs, widely exist in the environment. They are semi-volatile organic chemicals (SVOCs) and the partitioning between gas/particulate phases affects their environmental migration, transformation and fate, which further impacts their toxicity and health risk to human. However, there is a large data missing of the experimental distribution ratio in the atmospheric particulate phase (f), especially for X-PAHs. In this study, we first checked the correlation between experimental f values of 53 PAH derivatives and their octanol-air partitioning coefficients (log KOA), which is frequently used to characterize the distribution of chemicals in organic phase, and yielded R2 = 0.803. Then, quantum chemical descriptors derived from molecular structural optimization by M06–2X/6–311 +G (d,p) method were further employed to develop Quantitative Structure-Property Relationship (QSPR) model. The model contains two descriptors, the average molecular polarizability (α) and the equilibrium parameter of molecular electrostatic potential (τ), and yields better performance with R2 = 0.846 and RMSE = 0.122. The mechanism analysis and validation results by different strategies prove that the model can reveal the molecular properties that dominate the distribution between gas and particulate phases and it can be used to predict f values of other PAHs/X-PAHs, providing basic data for their environmental ecological risk assessment.

Investigations into the impacts of climate change on food security and internal migration in Malawi

Background and aim: Malawi’s rainfed, agrarian economy is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Changes in crop production may impact household food security and wealth. Popular narratives of ‘climate migration’ suggests that, amongst other responses, migration (usually rural-to-rural or rural-to-urban) will increase in response to climate change, as households attempt to diversify their income and improve their prospects. The study aim was to explore the relationships between climate variables, food security and internal migration at the household level. Methods: We performed descriptive epidemiological analyses to understand climate change, food security and migration patterns within Malawi, and associations between these factors. Using a conceptual model of the drivers of migration, we informed a step-wise approach to build a set of multiple linear and logistic regression models relating climate and migration variables directly, and as mediated by a range of food security indicators and sociodemographic factors. Models examined intra- and inter-district variability and explored differences between migration profiles of rural and urban districts. Results: Modest positive relationships were identified between migration status and the average number of meals consumed for southern districts and urban migrant families. Flooding was identified as a common driver of food insecurity potentially linked to both climate change as well as future migration. Malawi’s four cities and the south of the country demonstrated a modest, negative relationship between rainfall volume and in-migration prevalence. Conclusions: Findings suggested that changes in rainfall quantities, such as droughts, may impede internal migration through poverty traps. These modest findings also challenge popular narratives which may over-assert the role of climate change as a driver of migration. In the future, as climate change continues, internal migration patterns may alter, with implications for urbanisation rates, food systems and development pathways for Malawi. Key words: climate change, climate migration, environmental migration, Malawi

The Sea Swallowed our Houses and Rice Fields: The Vulnerability to Climate Change of Coastal People in Guinea-Bissau, West Africa.

Guinea-Bissau remains among the African countries most vulnerable to climate change due to its flat topography and large meandering coastal area invaded by the tides.We present a case study of the island-village of Djobel, showing the dramatic consequences of socio-environmental change. The inhabitants' attempts to mitigate the impact of extreme weather events and sea-level rise and adapt to the new circumstances have been hampered by the seizure of their upland territory by a neighboring village. In the context of a disconnect between state and society, Djobel's inhabitants want the state to guarantee their rights to productive land, water, and safe housing conditions. This case shows the need for legal protection of the rights of poor, marginalized, and underrepresented populations at risk of becoming climate refugees in the fragile context of politically unstable, failed, and often authoritarian states.

The Impact of Disasters and Climate Change on Migration and Displacement

This paper examines the impact of disasters and climate change on migration and displacement. It looks at the direct and indirect effects of such events and how they can force people to move away from their homes. It also discusses the growing trend of environmental migration and how this has been exacerbated with managing such population movements. Finally, it outlines the potential solutions to this growing problem and proposes ways to address the humanitarian issues involved. This paper examines the impact of disasters and climate change on migration and displacement. It looks at the various ways in which disasters and climate change can cause displacement, such as extreme weather events, sea level rise, and land degradation. It also looks at the consequences of displacement on both individuals and communities, such as loss of livelihoods, increased vulnerability to exploitation, and displacement to unfamiliar places. Finally, the paper looks at the potential policy responses to mitigate the effects of disasters and climate change on migration and displacement. Keyword :Climate Change, Disaster, Displacement, Migration, Impacts.

Climate justice for the southwestern coastal region of Bangladesh

Climate change is considered a moral, ethical and social issue, which makes it different from other developmental issues. The foremost instance of lack of justice regarding climate change is that the worst impacted areas are the ones with the lowest contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, such as the southwestern coastal region of Bangladesh (SWCRB). Climate change is principally triggered by the presence and eventual spread of industrialization. This study employed the mixed method, combining qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and analysis for development of a framework for climate justice. Data and information were obtained from both primary and secondary sources. In primary sources, quantitative data were collected from climate vulnerable community households using a structured close ended questionnaire and interactive sessions such as focus group discussions, in-depth interviews, key informant interviews, workshops, and case studies. This study explored the perceptions of people in the SWCRB, currently experiencing devastating effects of climate change and sea level rise including extreme natural disasters, seasonal changes, flooding, salinization, riverbank erosion, and waterlogging. These climate-induced changes are causing loss of housing, livelihoods, and land to the natives, in addition to a lack of access to proper nutrition, potable water, and healthcare thus exacerbating social injustice. A capability-based approach to climate justice is introduced in this paper, which allows for residents of this region to prepare and rebuild their own communities and create adaptive mechanisms based on their specific capabilities. This approach requires compensation (funding) from the global community, in addition to organizational connection between local people and other stakeholders. The people in the SWCRB are increasingly opting for community-based disaster management and inclusion in policy making. Persistent issues faced by these communities require sustainable development of embankments and infrastructure, as well as affordable and sustainable access to potable water. Industrialized nations should provide this compensation for climate change, in addition to acting promptly to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and opt for renewable energy to avoid worst-case scenario. Lastly, involuntarily displaced climate refugees must be provided rights, compensation, and relocation assistance.

Migrants, Vagrants, and the Making of the Anthropocene

Migrants, Vagrants, and the Making of the Anthropocene

An Urban Governance Framework for Including Environmental Migrants in Sustainable Cities

This article proposes an urban governance framework for including environmental migrants in sustainable cities. It outlines the links among environmental migration, vulnerability, and sustainability, showing how vulnerability and sustainability are not about the environment or the human condition as snapshots in space and time, but rather are long-term, multi-scalar, ever-evolving processes. This theoretical baseline is followed by a description of some practical approaches already applied for including environmental migrants in sustainable cities. The wide variety and lack of cohesion justifies the need for a framework, leading to three principal characteristics of a governance framework suitable for addressing vulnerability and environmental migration for urban sustainability: horizontally and vertically networked, inclusive, and evidence-based. As the framework’s three dimensions represent principles or overarching structural solutions rather than presenting operational guidance, the concluding discussion covers the framework’s limitations and a research agenda.

Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Reduce Cadmium Leaching from Sand Columns by Reducing Availability and Enhancing Uptake by Maize Roots.

To explore the effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on the environmental migration of cadmium (Cd), a sand column-maize system containing 20 mg·L−1 Cd solution was used to investigate the AMF effect on maize growth, Cd uptake by maize, Cd adsorption by sand and Cd leaching loss. The results showed that AMF significantly increased the content of EE-GRSP and T-GRSP by 34.9% and 37.2%, respectively; the secretion of malonic acid, oxalic acid and succinic acid increased by 154.2%, 54.0% and 11.0%, respectively; the secretion of acetic acid and citric acid increased by 95.5% and 59.9%, respectively; and the length, surface area, volume, tip number and cross number of maize roots decreased by 10%, 15%, 17%, 20% and 36.4%, respectively. AMF significantly increased Cd adsorption by sand by 6.2%, Cd uptake by maize by 68.1%, and Cd leaching loss by 84.6%. In the sand column-maize system, 92.3% of the total Cd was adsorbed by sand, 5.9% was taken up by maize and 1.8% was lost due to leaching. Moreover, Cd adsorption by sand was significantly positively correlated with the GRSP content and oxalic acid secretion, and Cd uptake by roots was significantly negatively correlated with Cd leaching loss. Overall, AMF reduced the loss of Cd in the leaching solution by promoting the release of oxalic acid and GRSP, increasing the adsorption of Cd in the sand and fixing the Cd in the plant to the roots.

An investigation of the key Challenges and Resolutions for Sustainable Groundwater Management in Paktika, Afghanistan

If Afghanistan's current environmental problems are not addressed, the consequences could include severe water scarcity in some areas, which could threaten livelihoods, create environmental refugees, exacerbate adverse humanitarian conditions, and increase regional tensions. Therefore, the study was conducted in Sharana, the center of Paktika province, and was attended by 45 farmers. The goal of the research was to determine the major threats to Sharana's groundwater resources. For this study, questionnaires and field observations were chosen as techniques. according to the study's findings that drought, increased use of solar-powered submersibles, a lack of water management plan, a lack of regulations related to groundwater exploitations, and extensive use of underground water for irrigation due to farmers' lack of awareness and traditional irrigation systems are among the key challenges threatening groundwater in Paktika. Because the groundwater level has dropped, it is not unlikely that this situation may turn into a disaster if it continues. The primary components that can contribute to the sustainability of groundwater resources management in Paktika city are raising public knowledge about water resources management, switching to smart irrigation techniques, and adopting an integrated water resources management framework.

Oceanic cosmopolitanism: the complexity of waiting for future climate refugees

ABSTRACT Waiting may feel like wasted time for people inhabiting small, low-lying, and extremely vulnerable island states as they await rising sea levels. Their homes may soon become uninhabitable due to climate change. The interplay between accelerating natural hazards, an increasing number of climate refugees, and the lack of adequate international refugee protection can prolong their waiting time. Therefore, I examine this experience within the complexity of the waiting framework consisting of existential, legal, and natural waiting. I explore the negative implications of climate refugees’ waiting and how such waiting may be prevented.

Effects of short-term soil exposure of different doses of ZnO nanoparticles on the soil environment and the growth and nitrogen fixation of alfalfa

The extensive application of nanomaterials has increased their levels in soil environments. Therefore, clarifying the process of environmental migration is important for environmental safety and human health. In this study, alfalfa was used to determine the effects of different doses of ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) on the growth of alfalfa and the soil environment. Results showed that the alfalfa biomass was inversely proportional to the exposure concentration of ZnO NPs. The Zn concentration in the alfalfa tissue and the exposure dose presented a significant positive correlation. A high concentration of ZnO NPs decreased the nitrogen-fixing area of root nodules while the number of bacteroids and root nodules, which in turn affected the nitrogen-fixing ability of alfalfa. At the same time, it caused different degrees of damage to the root nodules and root tip cells of alfalfa. A high dose of ZnO NPs decreased the relative abundance and diversity of the soil microorganisms. Therefore, short-term and high-dose exposure of ZnO NPs causes multiple toxicities in plants and soil environments.