Climate Mitigation Research Articles

The Influence of Climate Perception and Low-Carbon Awareness on the Emission Reduction Willingness of Decision Makers in Large-Scale Dairy Farming: Evidence from the Midwest of Inner Mongolia, China

In recent years, global climate change has profoundly influenced natural ecosystems and human societies, making climate mitigation and carbon emission reduction a point of consensus among the international community. The issue of carbon emissions in agriculture, particularly in the livestock sector, is garnering increasing attention. This study focuses on large-scale dairy farms in the central and western regions of Inner Mongolia, exploring their low-carbon production behavioral intentions and influencing factors. By constructing a structural equation model (PLS-SEM), we systematically analyze the relationships between variables such as climate perception, value judgment, attitude, subjective norms, and perceived control and their combined effects on low-carbon production behavioral intentions. The findings suggest that the influence of climate perception and low-carbon awareness is mediated. Thus, the stronger the farm owners’ perception of climate change, the more they recognize the value of low-carbon production and the greater the social pressure they experience and their sense of self-efficacy. The farm owners’ attitudes, perceptions of social norms, and evaluations of their own capabilities collectively determine their intentions regarding low-carbon production. Furthermore, multi-group analysis showed significant heterogeneity in behavioral intentions between different scales of dairy farms. Small-scale farms, due to their weaker economic capacity, tend to harbor negative attitudes towards low-carbon production, while large-scale farms, with greater economic power and sensitivity to policy and market demands, are more likely to take low-carbon actions. This study provides theoretical support for formulating effective low-carbon policies, contributing to the sustainable development of the livestock sector and agriculture as a whole.

Crowdfunding of Climate Mitigation Measures in Agriculture: Developing a Sustainable Business Model Concept

Crowdfunding of Climate Mitigation Measures in Agriculture: Developing a Sustainable Business Model Concept

Narratives and opinion polarization: a survey experiment

We explore the impact of narratives on beliefs and policy opinions through a survey experiment that exposes US subjects to two media-based explanations of the causes of COVID-19. The Lab Narrative ascribes the pandemic to human error and scientific misconduct in a Chinese lab, and the Nature Narrative describes the natural causes of the virus. First, we find that both narratives influence individual beliefs about COVID-19 origins. More precisely, individual beliefs tend to be swayed in the direction of the version of the facts to which one is more exposed generating a potential source of polarization by exposure. Second, only the Nature Narrative unidirectionally affects policy opinions by increasing people’s preferences toward climate protection and trust in science, therefore representing a channel for one-sided polarization by exposure. Finally, we also explore the existence of heterogeneous effects of our narratives, finding that the Lab Narrative leads to opinion polarization between Republican- and Democratic-leaning states on climate change and foreign trade. This indicates the existence of an additional channel that can lead policy opinions to diverge, which we denote polarization by social context.

Strong climate mitigation potential of rewetting oil palm plantations on tropical peatlands

For decades, tropical peatlands in Indonesia have been deforested and converted to other land uses, mainly oil palm plantations which now cover one-fourth of the degraded peatland area. Given that the capacity for peatland ecosystems to store carbon depends largely on hydrology, there is a growing interest in rewetting degraded peatlands to shift them back to a carbon sink. Recent estimates suggest that peatland rewetting may contribute up to 13 % of Indonesia's total mitigation potential from natural climate solutions. In this study, we measured CO2 and CH4 fluxes, soil temperature, and water table level (WTL) for drained oil palm plantations, rewetted oil palm plantations, and secondary forests located in the Mempawah and Kubu Raya Regencies of West Kalimantan, Indonesia. We found that peatland rewetting significantly reduced peat CO2 emissions, though CH4 uptake was not significantly different in rewetted peatland compared to drained peatland. Rewetting drained peatlands on oil palm plantations reduced heterotrophic respiration by 34 % and total respiration by 20 %. Our results suggest that rewetting drained oil palm plantations will not achieve low CO2 emissions as observed in secondary forests due to differences in vegetation or land management. However, extrapolating our results to the areas of degraded oil palm plantations in West Kalimantan suggests that successful peatland rewetting could still reduce emissions by 3.9 MtCO2 yr−1. This result confirms that rewetting oil palm plantations in tropical peatlands is an effective natural climate solution for achieving national emission reduction targets.

Green energy transition, economic complexity, green finance, and ecological footprint: Shaping the SDGs in the presence of geopolitical risk

AbstractAchieving sustainable development while mitigating environmental degradation is a pressing global challenge. Economic development, accompanied by industrialization, fossil fuel consumption, and unsustainable use of natural resources, is widely identified in the literature as a leading cause of environmental degradation. Green energy transition (GET) and economic complexity—the shift towards more advanced and knowledge‐driven manufacturing, can be crucial strategies in reducing ecological degradation and helping countries achieve climate change mitigation targets. Green finance can play an important role in environmental sustainability, while geopolitical risk can impede countries' climate mitigation efforts. In this context, this study investigates the impact of GET, economic complexity, green finance, and geopolitical risk on the ecological footprint in OECD countries from 1995 to 2021. These four critical factors are integrated into the same environmental policy framework due to their potential to influence environmental sustainability in OECD economies. The study employed the Method of Moments Quantile Regression to provide robust estimates across different quantiles. The empirical outcomes unveiled that GET significantly reduces the ecological footprint across all quantiles. The economic complexity posed a significant and negative impact across all quantiles except at the lower quantile (τ = 0.10). Green finance also poses a negative impact, indicating its effectiveness in promoting environmental sustainability. However, geopolitical risk exacerbates the ecological footprint. The control variables, GDP and urbanization, are found to increase the ecological footprint. In terms of policy implications, this study suggests that policymakers should focus on increasing the share of green energy, fostering economic complexity and green finance, and mitigating geopolitical tensions to reduce the ecological footprint and achieve environmental sustainability in OECD nations.

Coastal and Marine Management – Navigating islands of data

The disciplines of Coastal Management and Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) are predominantly focussed on creating a regulatory and legislative framework within which national and regional planning policies, climate mitigation measures and environmental monitoring requirements can be effectively implemented. These evidence-based processes necessitate the discoverability, accessibility and integration of appropriate ‘trusted’ coastal and marine data together with contiguous terrestrial datasets. This presents significant challenges at national and local levels. While authoritative open data is often available, the data for any management requirement is often dispersed across a wide range of national online portals, statistical and research hubs, ‘scientific’ platforms and occasionally, private companies. This is exemplified in Ireland, where MSP is in its infancy, and consequently, the breadth of MSP foundational thematic marine data requirements required to comply with this Directive has yet to be fully realised by end-users/stakeholders and data providers. This study examines the nexus between mandatory data requirements of the European Community’s Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Community (INSPIRE) Directive11INSPIRE Directive (2007/2/EC) is a legal EU initiative to establish an INfrastructure for SPatial InfoRmation in Europe and to make geographical information more accessible and interoperable for the management of the environment and other wide range of purposes towards supporting sustainable development (EC, 2021) (2007/2/EC), (EC, 2007) and the evidence-base needs of its Maritime Spatial Planning (MSP) Directive (2014/89/EU). An extensive inventory of coastal and MSP thematic data features is identified and categorised (into sectoral/thematic clusters) and appropriate and authoritative online sources (where available) are scoped out. Through an in-depth interrogation of national and EU sectoral platforms or portals, (much of whose data was originally captured for a diverse range of applications and management processes), and in view of INSPIRE’s well-established (legally-binding) data specifications, standards and guidance, a methodology is presented to accelerate coastal and marine data discovery, and to collate or ‘group’ these authoritative data sources under broad but succinct MSP thematic headings. The resulting coastal and marine data catalogue is the first step in the creation of an easy data reference and retrieval tool for Irish coastal and marine practitioners, and presents a model for other nations.

The food-water-climate nexus of green infrastructure: Examining ecosystem services trade-offs of peri-urban agriculture

Emission reduction, heat mitigation, and improved access to water and food provision are increasingly critical challenges for urban areas in the context of global climate change adaptation and mitigation. The revival of local agricultural production is often lauded as a potential nature-based solution. However, an expansion of peri-urban agriculture (peri-UA) may entail significant ecosystem trade-offs. This study explores the impacts on the food-water-climate nexus of different scenarios of peri-urban agricultural expansion in a semi-arid, Mediterranean climate, addressing local food provision, freshwater use, local temperature regulation, global climate change mitigation, and the trade-offs thereof. We estimate food provision and irrigation water requirements based on a georeferenced urban metabolism approach along with atmospheric and biosphere models to examine four land-use scenarios in the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona.Our study reveals that a 31 % (+17.27 km2) and 115 % (+64.25 km2) increase in the current peri-UA in the AMB, results in an increase in local food production of 24 % (+16,503 tons year−1) and 86 % (+58,940 tons year−1), and irrigation water requirements by 10.0 % (+3.2 hm3) and 43.5 % (+14.1 hm3), respectively. The expansion of irrigated peri-UA potentially reduces near-surface temperatures by 0.7 °C, albeit temperature reductions in the densest urban areas are minimal. Since the additional peri-UA is achieved by replacing natural non-forested and forest areas, the simulations predict reductions in the net ecosystem productivity of up to 18.5 % and total carbon stocks by 3.3 %. This integrated approach combining urban metabolism and atmospheric modelling to determine the trade-offs appears to be a promising tool for informing land-use decision-making in the context of urban climate adaptation and mitigation.

GOBLIN Lite: A National Land Balance Model for Assessment of Climate Mitigation Pathways for Ireland.

GOBLIN Lite: A National Land Balance Model for Assessment of Climate Mitigation Pathways for Ireland.

The effects of fear appeals on reactance in climate change communication

Addressing the existential threat posed by climate change requires urgent actions, both on an individual level and on a policy level. In the present research, we applied an emotion-based persuasion appeal model to climate change mitigation to test the effect of climate mitigation appeals formulated with different levels of threat (high vs. low) and appealing to different types of climate change solutions (individual vs. policy) in eliciting psychological reactance, motivating support for climate change mitigation, and influencing willingness to discuss the issue with others. Through an online between-subjects experiment, we found that appealing to individuals (as opposed to policy) increased individuals' perceived threat to freedom, and psychological reactance. Our threat manipulation increased levels of fear, but the interaction between level of threat and type of appeal was not statistically significant on any of our dependent variables. Results are discussed in light of the active debate regarding the effectiveness of fear appeals in the climate change communication context.

Unlocking the Potential of Zero-tillage Farming: Challenges, Opportunities, and Key Influences on Adoption

Zero tillage (ZT) is a crucial agricultural strategy that prioritizes little soil disturbance. This research investigates the future possibilities of ZT, concentrating on three critical dimensions: technology developments, climate change considerations, and possible rise in adoption rates. Precision agriculture, robotics, artificial intelligence, and biotechnology have been shown to play a critical role in improving ZT efficiency and sustainability. These advancements enable more intelligent and focused methods, lowering waste and harmonizing farming operations with overall sustainability goals. Climate change is also a crucial factor in influencing ZT's future. ZT's intrinsic qualities of soil moisture conservation, decreased erosion, and carbon sequestration make it an effective technique for climate mitigation and adaptation. According to the report, the worldwide need to address climate change may serve as a stimulus for ZT expansion, linking it with crucial agricultural initiatives in the future. The possible rise in ZT adoption rates is investigated in light of these technological and environmental aspects. The findings indicate that technology's role in eliminating obstacles and increasing efficiency, together with government and organizational backing, might encourage widespread ZT adoption, particularly in developing nations. Collaborative efforts among multiple stakeholders, including researchers, policymakers, farmers, and industry, are emphasized as critical to optimizing ZT for different situations and requirements. Zero Tillage's future possibilities are broad and varied, characterized by technical innovation, compatibility with climate goals, and a clear route to widespread implementation. The combination of these variables offers a favorable scenario for ZT, establishing it as a key technique in developing sustainable agriculture in the future. This study adds to our understanding of ZT's future trajectory and provides insights that can help direct its ongoing evolution and effect in the agriculture sector.

Alignment of energy transition and water resources under the carbon neutrality target in China

ABSTRACT Significant energy transition would be needed in China under the carbon neutrality target. Since it would have important impacts on water resource through increased usage, understanding the water demand under specific climate change targets could enable better policy-making for the energy transition. In order to quantitatively analyze the impacts, this study proposed a methodology that combines CO2 emissions, energy transition, and water demand. An energy-water integrated assessment model was built, to simulate the future energy and CO2 emissions pathways up to 2050 in China. The water demand of energy systems under both policy scenario (PS) and two mitigation scenarios (2C and 1.5C) are calculated. The key influencing factors of water demand are analysed in two low-water-demand mitigation scenarios (2C-LW and 1.5C-LW). The results showed that China’s future energy system and CO2 emissions pathways change significantly under mitigation scenarios. The timing of the CO2 emissions peak advances from around 2030 under the PS scenario to between 2020 and 2025 in the mitigation scenarios. Near-zero emissions are achieved by 2050 under the 1.5C scenario. However, with no further water-saving measures, water consumption in energy sector would continue to increase under both the policy scenario and mitigation scenarios. This pressure is compounded by certain mitigation technologies, such as inland nuclear power, biomass energy, and CCS technologies. As such, the potential for water conservation in energy system under climate mitigation targets is studied. The results showed that water-saving measures can significantly reduce long-term water demand in the energy system.

Getting allometry right at the Oak Ridge free‐air CO2 enrichment experiment: Old problems and new opportunities for global change experiments

Societal Impact StatementFree‐air CO2 enrichment (FACE) experiments provide essential data on forest responses to increasing atmospheric CO2 for evaluations of climate change impacts on humanity. Understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the experimental results is critical to ensure scientific and public confidence in the models and policy initiatives that derive therefrom. One source of uncertainty is the estimation of tree biomass using mathematical relationships between biomass and easily obtained and non‐destructive measurements (allometry). We evaluated the robustness of the allometric relationships established at the beginning of a FACE experiment and discuss the challenges and opportunities for the new generation of FACE experiments.Summary Long‐term field experiments to elucidate forest responses to rising atmospheric CO2 concentration require allometric equations to estimate tree biomass from non‐destructive measurements of tree size. We analyzed whether the allometric equations established at the beginning of a free‐air CO2 enrichment (FACE) experiment in a Liquidambar styraciflua plantation were still valid at the end of the 12 year experiment. Aboveground woody biomass was initially predicted by an equation that included bole diameter, taper, and height, assuming that including taper and height as predictors would accommodate changes in tree structure that might occur over time and in response to elevated CO2. At the conclusion of the FACE experiment, we harvested 23 trees, measured dimensions and dry mass of boles and branches, and extracted and measured the woody root mass of 10 trees. Although 10 of the harvested trees were larger than the trees used to establish the allometric relationship, measured aboveground woody biomass was well predicted by the original allometry. The initial linear equation between bole basal area and woody root biomass underestimated final root biomass by 28%, but root biomass was just 21% of total wood mass, and errors in aboveground and belowground estimates were offsetting. The allometry established at the beginning of the experiment provided valid predictions of tree biomass throughout the experiment. New allometric approaches using terrestrial laser scanning should reduce an important source of uncertainty in decade‐long forest experiments and in assessments of centuries‐long forest biomass accretion used in evaluating carbon offsets and climate mitigation.

Indigenous land-based practices for climate crisis adaptions

Indigenous communities across Canada persist at the forefront of environmental and climate-related challenges, necessitating a concerted effort to integrate traditional Indigenous land-based knowledge and practices that inherently promote environmental protection and resilience. Using a decolonial feminist theoretical framework, this research centers on Indigenous community perspectives on the climate crisis and their land-based adaptions. Such an approach empowers Indigenous communities to reclaim agency over their narratives and shape research agendas congruent with their lived realities and aspirations. The study concludes by promoting the imperative of revitalizing traditional Indigenous land-based knowledge, practices and relationships with their ancestral lands. Despite emerging recognition within the scientific literature and international agreements, such as the Paris Agreement, of the significance of traditional Indigenous land-based knowledge, many climate mitigation and adaptation initiatives continue to overlook Indigenous participation at various decision-making junctures. Hence, this paper advocates the necessity for international frameworks to acknowledge and integrate traditional knowledge systems and Indigenous participation across national borders, fostering inclusive climate crisis solutions that resonate with Indigenous communities' perspectives and experiences.

The impact of renewable energy, eco-innovation, and GDP growth on CO2 emissions: Pathways to the UK's net zero target

In May 2019, the Climate Change Committee (CCC) recommended that the UK adopt a net-zero target, aiming to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) by 100% from the 1990s baseline by 2050. The government accepted the recommendation, and the UK became the first major economy to establish a net-zero emissions law. To progress towards its climate objectives, the government took several initiatives, such as increasing its reliance on renewable energy sources and investing in climate mitigation technologies, which are commonly referred to as process eco-innovation. This study examines the impact of eco-innovation, process eco-innovation, renewable energy consumption, and economic growth on CO2 emissions in the UK using data from 1988 to 2020. We used the ARDL bound test with an error correction model (ECM) to examine the long-run and short-run cointegration between the variables of concern. We found that eco-innovation, process eco-innovation, and renewable energy consumption have significant roles in mitigating CO2 emissions, while economic growth contributes to environmental degradation in the UK. We also found that the effect of eco-innovation on CO2 emissions abatement is stronger than that of process eco-innovation in the short and long-run. Our robustness tests have confirmed the accuracy of those findings. In addition, the results from the Toda-Yamamoto causality revealed a one-way causality from process eco-innovation to CO2, renewable energy to CO2, and eco-innovation to CO2 emissions. Further, a bidirectional causality was found between GDP and CO2 emissions. The evidence presented in this paper provides great insight for shaping the energy policy in the UK and for establishing the climate budget in line with the country's net-zero target.

Analysis of policy measures and feedback effects on industry transformation towards carbon neutrality

AbstractMotivated by the urgent need to curb carbon emissions substantially over the next years and decades, we develop a qualitative system dynamics model to investigate the role of feedback effects on the transformation of the industry sector towards carbon neutrality. Through systems thinking, this research analyses the complex interactions between policy measures, investment decisions in different environmental measures to reduce CO2 emissions (e.g., use of electric and thermal energies from renewables and increase of energy efficiency), CO2 compliance, the pressure to take further climate action, the industry's economic success and the availability of investment funds. The study contributes to qualitatively identify and explore levers that policymakers can use to encourage industry to invest further in climate protection measures. Moreover, it provides an important basis for the development of quantitative modelling approaches.

Policy Paradoxes in Environmental Sustainability: The Interplay of Socio-Economic Factors, Policy Innovations, and Community Forestry in Thailand

Environmental sustainability and climate mitigation are global priorities requiring innovative policies that balance ecological conservation with socio-economic development. This study examines the interplay between Thailand's greenhouse gas emissions trading, community forestry, and their combined impact on sustainable development through multiple regression analysis. Results reveal a paradox: renewable energy consumption negatively impacts community forests, suggesting land-use competition and policy misalignment. Increased R&D expenditure enhances community forestry, showing the transformative potential of targeted innovation. Income disparity undermines community forestry efforts, highlighting the need for inclusive policies addressing socio-economic inequalities. The positive correlation between CO2 emissions and community forestry extent questions the efficacy of current carbon offset initiatives. This study urges policymakers to adopt a nuanced approach, aligning renewable energy expansion with forestry conservation and addressing socio-economic disparities. These insights challenge conventional sustainability paradigms, advocating for comprehensive policy frameworks to achieve genuine sustainable development and effective climate mitigation.

Municipal circular economy indicators: Do they measure the cities' environmental ambitions?

Circular economy (CE) is gaining traction in cities as an approach to reducing local and global environmental impacts. Yet, how effective are these strategies in terms of their environmental impacts? To find out, we took a deep dive into 30 CE policies from cities in high-income countries across Europe, the Americas, and Oceania. We assessed the relevance of their indicator sets with regards to their major environmental concerns. To do so, we conducted a qualitative analysis of policy documents published in eight languages, examining common environmental goals, concerns, and progress indicators of various cities. The review reveals a broad spectrum of municipal CE policies, from waste management to climate action. Key concerns include climate mitigation and securing local resource availability, but overall, very diverse environmental targets could be identified. Some of these targets aim at local impacts such as air quality and public health, while others envision global impacts such as biodiversity conservation and intergenerational justice. While greenhouse gas emissions of territorial scope are frequently monitored, the indicator sets mostly ignore that climate mitigation involves a footprint scope. Moreover, the sets mostly lack indicators to monitor other environmental pressures and impacts. To better monitor these, we provide a set of recommendations for research and policy to bridge the gap between environmental concerns and indicator needs. We suggest complementing current resource flow dominated indicator sets with measures of the local environmental state and the application of urban footprint models to help cities monitor the desired global environmental impact of their measures.

Environmental protection laws and regulations in healthcare

The European Union and the German federal government have initiated aclimate protection program with guidelines and laws that, for the first time, hold the healthcare sector accountable. The legal provisions have far-reaching implications for hospitals. This article presents the specific provisions to be observed and the best practices for implementing the necessary measures. This study aims to provide aconcise overview of the legal provisions to be observed in the healthcare sector and to highlight support services for implementation. Selective internet research on legal provisions for the healthcare sector and guidance on approach. The EU Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD) with taxonomy came into force on January5, 2023. The Climate Protection Act, which was amended in April 2024, the Energy Efficiency Act (EnEfG), which came into force in January 2024, and the Supply Chain Sustainability Obligations Act (LKSG) are the most important German legal frameworks to be observed. The EU regulations and the German government's laws pose new challenges for hospitals, but are also an opportunity to tackle the necessary measures to reduce greenhouse gas equivalents in astructured manner. Achieving climate neutrality by 2045 is in everyone's interest and can only succeed if all sectors contribute. The healthcare sector has not yet been held accountable, despite its significant contribution of approximately 5% to national greenhouse gas emissions. The legal provisions now trigger anecessary transformation but also pose challenges in day-to-day operations, requiring support services.

How do donors integrate climate policy and development cooperation? An analysis of the development aid policies of 42 donor countries

ABSTRACT This article assesses how donor countries integrate climate action into their development aid policies. An analytical framework is developed for the systematic comparison of development aid policies along three dimensions: hierarchy of policy objectives, types of measures the donors implement, and linkages to international climate negotiations. Analyzing the development aid policies of 42 donors, we find that only three have redesigned their development aid policies to fully integrate climate policy concerns. Instead, donors treat climate change as a thematic priority area. This includes several donors that are currently not obliged to provide climate finance under the UNFCCC. Furthermore, five major donor countries emphasize the use of diverse foreign policy tools to support climate action in developing countries. Importantly, we identify how other development goals (poverty, gender) are integrated with climate policy goals. Only two donor countries clearly separate development aid and climate finance. Luxembourg states that its climate finance pledge is additional to development, while New Zealand has a separate climate finance strategy where the allocation of funds is based on climate mitigation effectiveness concerns.

The Greenhouse gas Observations of Biospheric and Local Emissions from the Upper sky (GOBLEU): a mission overview, instrument description, and results from the first flight

BackgroundThe Greenhouse gas Observations of Biospheric and Local Emissions from the Upper sky (GOBLEU) is a new joint project by Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) and ANA HOLDING INC. (ANAHD), which operates ANA flights. GOBLEU aims to visualizes our climate mitigation effort progress in support of subnational climate mitigation by collecting greenhouse gas (GHG) data as well as relevant data for emissions (nitrous dioxide, NO2) and removals (Solar-Induced Fluorescence, SIF) from regular passenger flights. We developed a luggage-sized instrument based on the space remote-sensing techniques that JAXA has developed for Japan’s Greenhouse gas Observing SATellite (GOSAT). The instrument can be conveniently installed on a coach-class passenger seat without modifying the seat or the aircraft.ResultsThe first GOBLEU observation was made on the flight from the Tokyo Haneda Airport to the Fukuoka Airport, with only the NO2 module activated. The collected high-spatial-resolution NO2 data were compared to that from the TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) satellite and surface NO2 data from ground-based air quality monitoring stations. While GOBLEU and TROPOMI data shared the major concentration patterns largely driven by cities and large point sources, regardless of different observation times, we found fine-scale concentration pattern differences, which might be an indication of potential room for GOBLEU to bring in new emission information and thus is worth further examination. We also characterized the levels of NO2 spatial correlation that change over time. The quickly degrading correlation level of GOBLEU and TROPOMI suggests a potentially significant impact of the time difference between CO2 and NO2 as an emission marker and, thus, the significance of co-located observations planned by future space missions.ConclusionsGOBLEU proposes aircraft-based, cost-effective, frequent monitoring of greenhouse emissions by GOBLEU instruments carried on regular passenger aircraft. Theoretically, the GOBLEU instrument can be installed and operated in most commercially used passenger aircraft without modifications. JAXA and ANAHD wish to promote the observation technique by expanding the observation coverage and partnership to other countries by enhancing international cooperation under the Paris Agreement.