Climate Change Targets Research Articles

ASSESSING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAZILIAN ELECTRIC VEHICLES MARKET: A STUDY INTEGRATING A STRUCTURE-CONDUCT-PERFORMANCE (SCP) MODEL AND A PESTEL ANALYSIS

Climate change is one of the biggest political and economic challenges faced by global economy. To slow down climate change, mitigation actions and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission targets have been adopted, promoting electric vehicles (EVs) globally. In Brazil, however, emission reduction strategies for the transport sector are based on the broad use of biofuels. This paper studies the Brazilian light-duty vehicle EVs market investigating the reasons behind its current state. A Structure-Conduct-Performance Model with a PESTEL Analysis and the Herfindahl–Hirschman Index integrated to the structure analysis was used. The Brazilian EV market has grown in the period from 2019 to 2023, albeit timidly and restricted to a luxury market. The lack of actions promoting electric mobility, a less than promising economic scenario, the challenges in implementing a charging infrastructure and the conduct of the incumbent firm in the market – investing in high priced hybrid models – contribute to low penetration of EVs in the market and the dominance of hybrids amongst them. In the light of these findings, this study highlights that the Brazilian EVs market would benefit from public policies developed to promote electric mobility, and investment of private companies to develop EV models with more competitive prices.

Mechanisms of international economic cooperation to support the global energy transition: ways to improve

The global energy transition is a complex process and requires deep international economic cooperation and joint efforts to achieve sustainable development. Effective interaction between countries, financial institutions and the private sector is essential to ensure sufficient investment in renewable energy and technological innovation. International financial mechanisms, such as green bonds, can significantly contribute to accelerating this process, but they must ensure access to resources for all participants, especially developing countries. Reforming the international financial system and developing new instruments for attracting private capital is an important step towards reducing risks and increasing the investment attractiveness of renewable energy projects. Removing barriers to investment in countries with unstable economies through the development of technical assistance programs and financial guarantees is also an important condition for success. The energy transition can only be successfully realized through a concerted international effort involving both developed and developing countries. A sustainable energy future and ambitious climate change targets can only be achieved through global cooperation, innovative financial solutions and technology sharing.

Place-based and sectoral patterns in urban experimentation: Implications for deep transitions research

Transforming critical infrastructure systems, such as water and energy, is crucial to achieving global sustainability and climate change targets in many cities. Whilst experimentation has been studied extensively in urban sustainability scholarships, there have been no large-N cross-sector comparative studies. Existing research is potentially blind to different patterns of urban experiments across multiple sectors. This is particularly relevant to advancing deep transitions thinking, which has increasingly foregrounded the notion of multi-system alignment across socio-technical domains. Our research aims to fill this knowledge gap using a database to characterise urban experiments across water and energy domains while integrating sectoral and place-based perspectives. We analysed 40 experiments across Melbourne and Adelaide, Australia. Our results show that on a collective level, these experiments skew towards technological interventions, while their transfer and impact trajectories are underpinned by distinct territorial and sectoral logics. We show that cross-sectoral analysis can reveal plurality in urban experiments across multiple systems and places while offering a more refined understanding of multi-system alignment requirements for deep transitions.

Recycling steel slag as fertiliser proxy in agriculture is good circular economy but disrupts plant microbial symbioses in the soil

Modern agriculture depends on synthetic fertilisers to ensure food security but their manufacture and use accounts for ~5 % of the global greenhouse gas emissions. Achieving climate change targets therefore requires alternatives, that while maintaining crop productivity, reduce emissions across the lifecycle of fertiliser utilisation. Steel slag, a nutrient-rich by-product of steel manufacture, offers a viable alternative. Being substantially cheaper than fertilisers, it is economically attractive for farmers, particularly in low-middle income countries of the Global South. However, slag application in agriculture poses risk of pollutant transfer to the human food chain and disruption of key plant-microbe symbioses like the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). Here, using barley as a model crop, we tested the suitability of slag as a fertiliser proxy. Mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal barley were grown in soils ameliorated with slag in concentrations of 0, 2, 5 and 10 t ha−1. We analysed slag-mycorrhiza interaction and their combined effects on crop yield and risks to human nourishment. Slag increased grain yield by respective 32 and 21 % in mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal barley. Grain concentration of metal pollutants in mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal barley fertilised with slag were within the WHO recommended limits. But slag reduced mycorrhizal colonisation in barley roots and extraradical hyphal spread in the soil. The consequent decline in symbiont function lowered AMF-mediated plant nutrient uptake and increased mineral losses in leachates. AMF are keystone species of the soil microbiome. Loss of AMF function presents long-term ecological consequences for agriculture and necessitates a careful evaluation of slag application to soil.

A comparison of animal and plant-based proteins from an economic, environmental, and nutritional perspective in the Republic of Ireland

CONTEXTProtein is a central component of health and nutrition. The current protein production system is unlikely to sustainably meet the growing global demand for protein. Therefore, alternative sources of protein must be considered. OBJECTIVEThis study uniquely compares animal-based (milk, beef meat, sheep meat) and plant-based (cereals and legumes) protein production in terms of land usage. The comparison is carried out across a suite of economic, environmental, and nutritional metrics. As land use decisions are taken at the farm level, the analysis adopts a farm gate approach. Focusing on the supply side, consumption is not considered in the analysis. METHODSEconomic performance is measured through the gross and net margins. Environmental performance is evaluated through farm-level greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) balances. Nutritional performance is measured through the gross protein yield, the protein yield corrected for digestibility and land-use efficiency, i.e., the land needed to generate one kg of (digestible) protein. Results are expressed per hectare and per 100 g of gross and digestible protein to allow for a holistic comparison. The analysis focuses on the Republic of Ireland, a relevant country given the importance of the strong agricultural export focus, the dominance of the livestock sector and the country's ambitious environmental emission reduction targets. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSFindings indicate that, on a per hectare basis, milk production on dairy farms has the strongest economic performance and highest GHG emissions amongst the products considered. Crops' gross and net margins are less than half that of dairy farms, but they also show the strongest environmental performance generally. Cereals and legumes have the best nutritional performance, from a protein perspective, whereas sheep meat production returned the lowest gross and digestible protein yields per hectare. Arable crops also show the lowest GHG emissions and nutrient balances on a per unit of protein basis. SIGNIFICANCELand-use policies need to be designed holistically, given the complexity of the agricultural sector. Agricultural policy design currently focuses on income support and on the environmental impact of the agricultural sector, but farmers' livelihood and food and protein security need to be safeguarded. Diversifying agricultural production and increasing plant-based protein production in Ireland, a country with a livestock-focused agricultural sector, could contribute to achieving the climate change targets of the country, provided the necessary policy levers are in place.

100 years of autoclaved aerated concrete

Autoclaved Aerated Concrete [AAC], a revolution in thermal insulation and energy-efficient construction, was invented by Dr Axel Eriksson in Sweden in 1923. He developed a process for curing a special mixture of lime, metal powder, and a substance containing silica. The resulting steam-cured concrete had good thermal insulation, relatively high strength, high fire resistance, and could be produced economically. Carl August Carlén, who ran a family business, was granted a license to produce AAC in 1928. After a successful introduction in Sweden, AAC production became international in 1937. The use of license systems allowed third companies to invest in AAC, leading to rapid international expansion. Germany and Poland became leading centres of expertise and allowed AAC to expand on a global scale. As we approach the era of regulatory measures to meet Europe’s climate change targets AAC plays a significant role. This article presents the history and development of autoclaved aerated concrete over the last 100 years. The most important issues concerning the standardization of the production and use of autoclaved aerated concrete are also discussed.

Data integrity cyber-attack mitigation using linear quadratic regulator based load frequency control in hybrid power system

Abstract Hybrid power systems are the contemporary solution to meet the stiff climate change targets and also hold future for implementing distributed generation and microgrids. These systems have renewable sources as their key elements which in turn have high level of intermittency due to weather conditions and other reasons. At the same time, these hybrid power systems are also vulnerable to cyber threats owing to the intense adoption of various IoT Technologies (Internet of Things). Load frequency control (LFC) is a formidable task for the system operators under such scenario and robust control strategies are required to achieve the load frequency within tolerable limits. In this work Linear quadratic controller (LQR) has been proposed to address the challenges of hybrid power systems. Two area interconnected power systems are considered in this work with each one having different configuration with respect to source of power generation. Solar, wind, geo-thermal, electric vehicle charging infrastructure and pumped storage power plant are integrated together with conventional thermal power plant for showcasing the LQR based controller under data integrity cyber-attack scenario. The frequency response of the hybrid power system is demonstrated through MATLAB simulations.

The Past and Future of the Fisheries and Marine Ecosystem Model Intercomparison Project

AbstractClimate change is increasingly affecting the world's ocean ecosystems, necessitating urgent guidance on adaptation strategies to limit or prevent catastrophic impacts. The Fisheries and Marine Ecosystem Model Intercomparison Project (FishMIP) is a network and framework that provides standardised ensemble projections of the impacts of climate change and fisheries on ocean life and the benefits that it provides to people. Since its official launch in 2013 as a small, self‐organized project within the larger Inter‐Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project, the FishMIP community has grown substantially and contributed to key international policy processes, such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Assessment Report, and the Intergovernmental Science‐Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Global Biodiversity Assessment. While not without challenges, particularly around comparing heterogeneous ecosystem models, integrating fisheries scenarios, and standardising regional‐scale ecosystem models, FishMIP outputs are now being used across a variety of applications (e.g., climate change targets, fisheries management, marine conservation, Sustainable Development Goals). Over the next decade, FishMIP will focus on improving ecosystem model ensembles to provide more robust and policy‐relevant projections for different regions of the world under multiple climate and societal change scenarios, and continue to be open to a broad spectrum of marine ecosystem models and modelers. FishMIP also intends to enhance leadership diversity and capacity‐building to improve representation of early‐ and mid‐career researchers from under‐represented countries and ocean regions. As we look ahead, FishMIP aims to continue enhancing our understanding of how marine life and its contributions to people may change over the coming century at both global and regional scales.

Alignment of energy transition and water resources under the carbon neutrality target in China

ABSTRACT Significant energy transition would be needed in China under the carbon neutrality target. Since it would have important impacts on water resource through increased usage, understanding the water demand under specific climate change targets could enable better policy-making for the energy transition. In order to quantitatively analyze the impacts, this study proposed a methodology that combines CO2 emissions, energy transition, and water demand. An energy-water integrated assessment model was built, to simulate the future energy and CO2 emissions pathways up to 2050 in China. The water demand of energy systems under both policy scenario (PS) and two mitigation scenarios (2C and 1.5C) are calculated. The key influencing factors of water demand are analysed in two low-water-demand mitigation scenarios (2C-LW and 1.5C-LW). The results showed that China’s future energy system and CO2 emissions pathways change significantly under mitigation scenarios. The timing of the CO2 emissions peak advances from around 2030 under the PS scenario to between 2020 and 2025 in the mitigation scenarios. Near-zero emissions are achieved by 2050 under the 1.5C scenario. However, with no further water-saving measures, water consumption in energy sector would continue to increase under both the policy scenario and mitigation scenarios. This pressure is compounded by certain mitigation technologies, such as inland nuclear power, biomass energy, and CCS technologies. As such, the potential for water conservation in energy system under climate mitigation targets is studied. The results showed that water-saving measures can significantly reduce long-term water demand in the energy system.

“We can't be too saintly”: Why members of parliament in the United Kingdom are reluctant to lead by example with low-carbon behaviour

Low-carbon behaviour change from individuals is both essential for meeting climate change targets and highly politically contentious. Shifting away from activities such as flying, driving and meat eating can greatly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, yet political leaders have avoided introducing policies to stimulate this for fear of alienating voters and confronting political orthodoxies. This article examines low-carbon behaviour change through the novel lens of individual leadership and leading by example. Applying threories of credibility enhancing displays (CREDs) and embodied leadership, we present evidence from 19 interviews with UK members of parliament (MPs), exploring how they think leading by example may affect their credibility as democratic representatives. We find that MPs believe leading by example is important as a general principle but is problematic when it comes to low-carbon behaviour. While some MPs do deliberately model sustainable behaviours to maintain credibility as climate advocates, they tend to do this quietly for fear of negative reactions from the media, political rivals, and constituents. MPs say modelling low-carbon behaviour may be perceived as a threat to individual freedoms, such as flying for holidays, and risks disapproval from local business interests related to high-carbon activities, such as car manufacturers or the airline industry. Even pro-climate MPs tend to frame low-carbon behaviour as “extreme”, and position themselves in contrast to this extreme, thus perpetuating social and moral norms of high-carbon behaviour. We discuss how individual politicians form part of a systemic resistance to low-carbon behaviour change.

Achieving economy‐wide gains from residential energy efficiency improvements: The importance of timing and funding approach in driving the transition

AbstractResidential energy efficiency improvements are generally considered integral to achieving climate change targets. Alongside the primary benefits of reducing energy use and consumer bills, there is increasing policy interest in the potential for energy efficiency programmes to deliver economy‐wide gains, measured by gross domestic product, employment, household real incomes and spending power etc. Our previous research shows that such sustained gains are likely over time. Here, we consider how transitory outcomes are likely to be heavily influenced by the timing of actions and who pays, how and when. Insight in this regard is crucial for policy makers considering the mix and timing of measures to reach net zero outcomes that are economically as well as technically feasible. We consider alternative funding, distributions and timeframes for residential retrofitting costs and projects using a UK economy‐wide scenario simulation model. The key insight is that while government support for the provision of low‐cost finance options is strategically important in alleviating budget constraints and mitigating potential short‐term negative impacts on household spending, producer responses to the wind down of retrofitting spending can disrupt the adjustment of the economy. Here we identify pros and cons of different trajectories of action towards high‐level energy efficiency policy targets.

Blue carbon habitats in Aotearoa New Zealand—opportunities for conservation, restoration, and carbon sequestration

Coastal marine habitats (i.e. mangroves, saltmarshes, and seagrasses) have a high capacity for carbon sequestration (termed “blue carbon”) and the potential to reduce the effects of greenhouse gas emissions. However, blue carbon habitats have historically decreased as a consequence of land conversion, coastal development, and pollution and are under threat in many locations. Restoration of these habitats can reverse historic losses and generate carbon credits through increased carbon sequestration. With a long coastline, we hypothesized that there would be significant opportunities for coastal blue carbon in Aotearoa New Zealand. Results revealed Aotearoa estuaries and coastal areas contain approximately 20,932 ha of saltmarsh, 30,533 ha of mangrove, and 61,340 ha of seagrass, estimated to sequester a total of approximately 57,800 tC/year. A further 87,861 ha of land was estimated to be potentially suitable for blue carbon projects via tidal restoration, of which 56,482 ha was suitable for saltmarsh restoration (equivalent to 60,435 tC yr if restored), 17,291 ha was suitable for mangroves (26,455 tC/year), and 14,087 ha was suitable for seagrass (4790 tC/year). Both existing extent and restoration opportunity varied throughout the country, with greater opportunity in some regions than others. Nationwide, the total sequestration potential for blue carbon restoration was estimated at 91,680 tC yr−1 if all potential areas were restored. Carbon credits generated by blue carbon projects could be traded on a carbon market in Aotearoa, generate revenue for landowners, provide an additional pathway to meet domestic and international climate change targets, and result in a diversity of other ecological, social, and cultural co‐benefits from coastal restoration.

Development and Application of a Novel Non-Iterative Balancing Method for Hydronic Systems

The improvement of efficiency in new and existing buildings is one of the key aspects in achieving the climate change targets promoted by international regulatory and technical bodies, and among the measures that deserve renewed attention is the balancing of hydronic systems. However, the balancing procedures currently applied have not been updated for decades and are still largely unimplemented, as they are mainly based on cumbersome and iterative procedures. This paper deals with the proposal and advanced adaptation of a non-iterative balancing method previously developed for air systems, known as the progressive flow method (PFM). The application to water systems of the PFM’s concepts includes some aspects of an existing empirical method called the compensated method (CM) and overcomes its main limitations; moreover, the original PFM has been radically rethought in its implementation aspects, taking advantage of the tightness of water distribution systems, minimising instrumentation and the number of measurement operations, to definitively overcome the iterative nature of the currently applied methods. Experimental validation was carried out. Compared with a standard method, the enhanced PFM reduced the number of measurements by 48% and the number of balancing operations by 41%, achieving final flow rates within tolerances and the same configuration of balancing devices.

Balancing bioenergy expansion and restoration: Global shifts in biodiversity intactness

Abstract To combat climate change, bioenergy is expected to play a more substantial role in the global energy mix, necessitating the expansion of energy crop plantations during the 21st century. Low‐quality or abandoned agricultural land is commonly proposed for growing energy crops. However, restoring such agricultural land back to natural vegetation is also key for global biodiversity conservation and carbon sequestration. Thus, understanding the ecological implications of land‐use changes involving both energy crop plantations and restoration is required. Here, we use biodiversity data to calculate the Biodiversity Intactness Index (BII) in different land uses, including energy crop plantations. We combine our BII models with maps of land use, crop yields and priority areas for restoration to estimate the effects on BII of changes in land use, from the current day, due to bioenergy expansion. We then compare the effects on BII of replacing either any land with energy crops, or only existing agricultural land that is a priority for restoration. Finally, we contrast the effects on BII of planting energy crops versus restoring natural vegetation in priority areas for restoration. Planting energy crops in places with relatively high amounts of natural vegetation and high BII would substantially reduce BII. Planting energy crops only on existing agricultural land that is a priority for restoration would result in less negative effects on BII than planting such crops in high BII areas, and small increases in BII in places with less remaining natural vegetation. However, restoring natural vegetation in priority areas, rather than expanding energy crops, would result in better outcomes for BII. Contrasting the spatial effects on BII of planting energy crops compared with restoring natural vegetation highlights places where energy crops could be the least detrimental to BII, such as Central Europe and the east coasts of the USA and China. Synthesis and applications. While restoration is the best strategy for biodiversity, planting energy crops on agricultural land rather than replacing natural vegetation could minimise losses in biodiversity intactness. However, achieving targets for bioenergy, climate change and restoration will require strategic land‐use planning to minimise ecological compromises.

Embodied CO2 emissions of equity portfolios for Chinese asset managers

The 2015 Paris Agreement has set out the climate change target of limiting global warming to 1.5 °C, which poses a serious challenge to countries to reduce emissions. As the world’s largest carbon emitter, promoting the realization of the “dual-carbon” goal is the key to realizing China’s green transformation and high-quality development. Chinese asset managers play active roles in the capital market as an important channel of asset allocation. Currently, the vast majority of Chinese asset managers hold high percentages of high-carbon industries in their portfolios, and lack quantitative data of their carbon footprints embodied in equity investments, which faces huge carbon-related risks. Therefore, it’s an urgent need to comprehensively and scientifically measure financed emissions of Chinese asset managers, which is of great significance for asset managers’ carbon risk management and sustainable investment. This paper develops a detailed inventory of carbon emissions for equity portfolios managed by Chinese asset managers from 2010 to 2020, which stands as a pivotal reference for in-depth analysis of emission characteristics.

Climate risk assessment of buildings: An analysis of operating emissions of commercial offices in Australia

Building climate risk assessment involves benchmarking a building‘s energy use intensity against decarbonisation pathways to mitigate the impacts on climate change. Various climate risk assessment tools and frameworks are used for commercial buildings in different jurisdictions. This study reviewed 20 climate risk assessment tools based on their availability, application and underlying framework. Due to being the only available tool that sets global targets with local benchmarks in Australia to assess the risks associated with energy use in commercial offices, Carbon Risk Real Estate Monitor (CRREM) was chosen. Using the CRREM tool, 431 commercial office buildings across Australia are benchmarked and the results were compared based on climate zones, jurisdictions, locations and sustainability ratings. Results revealed that 58.2% (n = 251) of buildings met the energy use targets. Most energy-efficient offices are found in the VIC state, within the Central Business District of Melbourne. Conversely, improvement is needed in Darwin, Northern Territory. The buildings at climate risk (41.8%, n = 180) need to reduce their on-site energy intensity by an aggregated net performance gap of 5484 kWh/m2/year in total. This significant shortfall highlights the critical imperative for all buildings to swiftly align with decarbonisation pathways, ensuring they meet 2050 climate change targets.

Regression based stochastic energy management strategy for a grid connected microgrid using Artificial Electric Field Algorithm

Recent decade has witnessed steep technological advancement in the renewable energy sector due to growing concern of climate change and emission cut target. The lack of availability of fossil fuels and the high price of the same have made the use of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) as a promising approach for generating clean and sustainable energy at local level. This persuades the implementation of Microgrid (MG) supported with RES, to cater various types of load demand. However, planning and optimizing a MG operation have become challenging due to the intermittent nature of RES and uncertain loads. To address this issue, this paper introduces a Stochastic Energy Management Strategy (SEMS) for a grid connected MG comprising Photovoltaic, Wind Turbine, Fuel Cell, Micro Turbine, Battery Energy Storage and electrical as well as heat energy demand. The volatilities of RES power output and energy demand are modeled via Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) and Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) respectively. The problem is framed as non-linear (NL) dynamic stochastic optimization problem and solved using ‘Artificial Electric Field Algorithm (AEFA)’. Here, minimization of expected value of operational and emission cost are taken as objective functions; while various practicality aspects are modeled as constraints in the problem. Further, the efficacy of the proposed approach is validated around the first central moment of the load. Various case studies are performed to estimate the day ahead optimum operating schedule of the Distributed Energy Resources (DER) and to assess the impact of load uncertainties on DER operation and total MG operation cost. Further, the efficacy of the GPR is verified through comparison with MCS based result.

Energy policy and climate change mitigation at national level in the European Union: A case study of Lithuania

The European Union (EU) is addressing global climate change issues in the formulation of energy policy for many years. Each EU member state plays a pivotal role in realising ambitious goals and implementing measures for energy policy and climate change mitigation. This study introduces a composite indicator, serving as a metric to assess the progress achieved in the implementation of national-level energy and climate change policy in Lithuania, scrutinises Lithuania's adopted energy policy frameworks and computes a short-term index forecast. The indicator created is applied for a case study of Lithuania in the period of 2010–2021 taking into account different importance of the indicators selected. Results indicate a gradual annual increase in achievements whit an overall growth of 72% over the last 11 years. However, both the attained results and the short-term index forecast suggest that expected growth rates are insufficient to meet ambitious regional and national climate change and energy targets. The proposed indicator is universal and adaptable for measuring energy policy achievements in various countries, allowing comparisons and rankings of countries, and analysis of best practices. This case study contributes to a broader understanding of energy policy and climate change mitigation at the national level within the EU.

A holistic approach to refinery decarbonization based on atomic, energy and exergy flow analysis

As one of the largest industrial emitters, today’s refineries must take action to reduce emissions in response to global climate change and net-zero targets. However, the decarbonization of refineries is complex due to the diverse range of processes involved, high energy requirements, and the limited availability of cost-effective clean alternatives. In this study, a holistic approach is proposed for refinery decarbonization based on atomic, energy, and exergy flow analysis by characterizing feedstocks and products using their stoichiometric formulas (CHjOkNmSn) and thermodynamic properties. Applied to the Blueprint model, representing a typical European refinery, it is revealed that 2.4% and 1.3% of carbon emissions stem from the exit of oxygen atoms during combustion and hydrogen production, accounting for 4.3% of total energy input. Decarbonization options for future refineries such as product portfolio changes and alternative feedstocks were further explored. While maximizing naphtha for chemicals leads to increased CO2 emissions due to higher hydrogen-to-carbon ratios in products, biomass with electrolysis emerges as a preferable option for its low carbon losses and high exergy efficiency. The thermodynamic analysis of this study can provide valuable insights and theoretical instructions to industrial operators into the transition to future refineries.

Změna klimatu a limity odpovědnosti států

Climate change is now considered one of the greatest global challenges facing the world community. Climate change, or rather global warming, which is its main accelerator, is responsible for many of the negative impacts that people in different parts of the world are facing today. The world community is responding to climate change and setting clear targets to be achieved so that global warming begins to slow down and then returns to its natural equilibrium. However, this goal will not be achieved immediately, and certain parts of the world are already experiencing significant negative impacts that are affecting their human rights and fundamental freedoms. The question of responsibility, i.e., who is responsible for causing these negative impacts and who is responsible for addressing them, is still not closed. The so-called climate litigation, which has been spreading around the world since the middle of the last decade, could help to clarify it. Recently, human rights arguments have been emphasised in this litigation, and there is great potential that in the near future judicial and other decisions will eventually force states to act more effectively, especially on their international obligations and the potential liability consequences of non-compliance.