Clerical Authority Research Articles

Anchorites, Wise Folk and Magical Practitioners in Twelfth‐Century England

AbstractThis article considers the role of anchorites in twelfth‐century England in relation to the less familiar categories of wise folk and magical practitioners. It examines previously unpublished evidence for the presence of healers, wise women and other magical practitioners in Anglo‐Norman England and asks whether anchorites took on some of their roles. It also discusses whether their clients were primarily interested in the anchorites’ spiritual credentials, or in their ability to fulfil the roles elsewhere taken on by magical practitioners. Though our surviving pen‐portraits of anchorites tend to represent them as saints in an authoritative mould, this article seeks to blur boundaries between anchorites as holy men and women and the kinds of practitioners who did not win the approval of clerical authorities.

The Foolish Confounding the Wise: The Defense of Female Prophecy during and after the Council of Basel

This essay explores a meaningful countertrend to the prevailing hostility toward prophetic women in the fifteenth century. In particular, within the Holy Roman Empire, some supporters of the Council of Basel (1431-49) spoke out in support of prophetic and visionary women. They averred not only that women could prophesy but that they were more likely than men to receive visions during the troubled times in which they lived. This essay investigates the way that disillusionment with clerical authority during and after the Council of Basel led to the clerical defense of female visionaries. As a result of this disillusionment, advocates for Birgitta of Sweden and other female visionaries justified women’s gifts by referring to them as outsiders and associating them with conciliarism and radical reform. Such advocacy appears in the writings of several clerical reformers: Heymericus of Campo (1395-1460), Jacobus of Jüterbog/Paradiso (ca. 1381- 1465), Vincent of Aggsbach (ca. 1389-1464), the anonymous writer of a treatise on Antichrist (1454), and the anonymous writer of Sentimentum super Infestationem Turcorum (1459). This essay interrogates the arguments employed to justify female spiritual gifts and the context in which these justifications were made. These arguments would continue to frame opportunities for women to exert spiritual authority not only in the fifteenth century but also in the confessional battles of the following centuries.

Divine Sovereignty and Clerical Authority in Early Shi‘i Islamism: Bāqir al-Ṣadr (1935–80) and Taqī al-Mudarrisī (b. 1945) on the Islamic State

AbstractDivine sovereignty (ḥākimiyya)—as conceived by Abū al-A‘lā Mawdūdī (1903–79) and popularised by Sayyid Quṭb (1906–66) - has been a central component of Islamist thought. This article investigates the reception of the concept within Shi‘i Islam. As case studies, the article choses two prominent actors in the formative period of Shi‘i Islamism in Iraq: Muḥammad Bāqir al-Ṣadr (1935–80) and Muḥammad Taqī al-Mudarrisī (b. 1945). By discussing their reflections on the nature of an Islamic state, the article pursues three objectives: first, it overcomes a trend in academic scholarship that disregards Sunni influences on the development of Shi‘i Islamism. Second, the article highlights the role that the Iraqi Shi‘i intellectual milieu played in incorporating key Islamist concepts into Shi‘i political thought. Finally, the article demonstrates the different receptions of ḥākimiyya. Bāqir al-Ṣadr uses the ideological repertoire of Islamism to explore in pragmatic terms the parameters that define the state as Islamically legitimate. In contrast, Taqī al-Mudarrisī uses ḥākimiyya to redefine the sovereignty of the state in Islamic terms. He operationalises the concept in a Shi‘i context by arguing that the state must be led by a just jurisconsult (al-faqīh al-‘ādil) who becomes the sole agent of divine sovereignty in the state.

A Comparative Analysis of Berith and the Sacrament of Baptism and How They Contributed to the Inquisition

In 1391 Spanish Jews were forcibly converted to Catholic Christianity, and Portuguese Jews suffered the same fate in 1497. Jewish law rendered involuntary converts as anusim and voluntary converts as meshumadim. Christians without Jewish ancestry called them by various names, New Christians, alboraique, xuetas, and marranos, to name a few. In the fifteenth century, Catholic clerical authorities debated whether the New Christians were indeed Christians, albeit coerced. Canonic law rendered the sacrament of baptism as irrevocable. As such, any belief or practice not in accordance with Catholic doctrine was tantamount to heresy. Consequently, the Inquisition sought to rid the Church of the “Judaizing heresy.” On the one hand, the Sinaitic covenant (berith) considered anusim as Jews, even though there were Christians. This paper analyzes Jewish law and canonic law on respective religious identities. It includes an examination of rabbinic texts and rabbinic responsa, and an examination of the sacrament of Christian baptism. Both religious traditions fought for the souls of the anusim, characterizing what Victor Turner calls liminality and communitas.

The Life of Love and Resistance to Clerical Authority in Book to a Mother and Middle English Lollard Writing

Among vernacular religious manuals composed for women in the fourteenth century, Book to a Mother takes the unusual position of rejecting cloistered life for a widow's emulation and presents an alternative program of reading based on love and imitatio Christi. This essay reexamines Book to a Mother's adaptation of allegories of the cloister and its transformation of clerical practices of reading alongside lollard polemical writings that also sidestep priestly authority and institutional religion in Christian life. Although Book's use of polemical discourse has been downplayed or treated as separate from its devotional aims, this essay argues that Book combines devotion and dissent to empower the mother's reading, preaching, and living, and that such a dialogue is characteristic of lollard forms of living. In its attention to polemic, this analysis is significant for understanding the history of vernacular theologies and their experimentation with different rhetorical modes for reshaping belief and practice.

The six ages of Patrick: Yet another return to the dating question

This article returns to the surviving texts of Patrick, apostle to Ireland, in order to refine further his floruit in the fifth century. It argues that Patrick's use of a classical scheme relating age to status clarifies the contexts for the autobiographical details of his life, and that these details can be correlated with the limited historical records that survive for this period. In connecting his excommunication of Coroticus to an Easter controversy c. 455, and his controversial elevation to an episcopal see to a dislocation in clerical authority in Britain c. 441, I argue that Patrick's formal clerical career c. 427-455 matches Richard Hanson's sophisticated literary arguments made in the latter third of the twentieth century. I also propose that the uncertainty over the date of Patrick's death (in a context of exile), as represented by various reports in the Irish and Welsh annals c. 457-493, is inconsequential to his formal period of authority.

American Parishes: Remaking Local Catholicism ed. by Gary J. Adler Jr., Tricia C. Bruce and Brian Starks

Reviewed by: American Parishes: Remaking Local Catholicism ed. by Gary J. Adler Jr., Tricia C. Bruce and Brian Starks James C. Cavendish American Parishes: Remaking Local Catholicism. Edited by Gary J. Adler, Jr., Tricia C. Bruce, and Brian Starks. New York: Fordham University Press, 2019. 224 pp. $30.00. American Parishes is a well-organized, thought-provoking book that calls for a renewed focus on the sociology of Catholic parishes. Until recently, the field of congregational studies, as these authors argue, has focused primarily on Protestant congregations without really recognizing the distinctive features of Catholic parishes. This book successfully brings the insights of congregational studies to bear on Catholic parish life in the United States, and in so doing, helps to establish a research agenda for scholars interested in the sociological dynamics involved in American Catholic parishes today. It is a welcome resource for sociologists of religion, college professors who wish to expand their students’ supplemental reading materials, and church practitioners who seek to familiarize themselves with the key issues and trends in Catholic parish life today. [End Page 85] Part I of the book, “Seeing Parishes Through a Sociological Lens,” summarizes the history of the sociological study of parishes in the United States and highlights the various ways that Catholic parishes are distinct from Protestant congregations, primarily in terms of size, the use of small ministry groups, the availability of clergy, clerical authority, expectations of lay leadership and participation, and congregational diversity. These differences, according to Nancy Ammerman, author of the book’s second chapter, provide the bases “where the study of parishes may genuinely plow new (conceptual) ground” (59), making parishes “fertile ground for examining local religious culture” (62). The chapters that form Part II “Parish Trends,” Part III “Race, Class, and Diversity in the Parish,” and Part IV “Young Catholics In (and Out) of Parishes,” present insights and findings stemming from the contributing authors’ own empirical research into specific aspects of American Catholic parishes. They discuss trends in American Catholics’ parish-going behavior, generational variation in attachment to parishes, and variation within and across parishes in terms of race, ethnicity, class, and region. In Mark Gray’s chapter, for instance, readers learn that although the percentage of Americans who identify as Catholics has remained fairly stable over time, there is a clear downward trend in the percentage who would be regarded as “core” Catholics (i.e., those who are highly involved in their parishes), and that that percentage is not as high is one might think. In Kathleen Graces-Foley’s chapter, we learn that many of the young adult Catholics she studied engage in parish shopping or parish hopping and rarely register at a parish. According to Graces-Foley, these young Catholics, rather than regarding a particular parish as their “home parish,” prefer instead to use parishes as hubs for their participation in various parachurch organizations, transparish social groups, and online social networks. These specific findings, which reveal a declining significance of the parish in the lives of many Catholics, particularly young Catholics, will raise questions among readers about why it is important to take a renewed focus on the sociology of Catholic parishes. Fortunately, the authors provide compelling explanations, on both empirical and theoretical grounds, for why sociologists should continue to examine Catholic parishes today. In Chapter 3, for instance, Gary Adler provides evidence of important changes taking place among Catholic parishes—members and leaders are becoming older and more Hispanic, parish cultures are becoming more theologically conservative and politicized, and participation boundaries for women and gays and lesbians are increasing. These dynamics matter because, as the authors argue, [End Page 86] Catholic parishes occupy and remain “the embedded middle of American Catholicism” (231). They are the meso-level settings in which individual Catholics come together to form community and “create a local identity within a global Catholic Church.” As the point where Catholicism from “below” meets Catholicism from “above,” parishes are an important object of study precisely because they reveal where microlevel actions do not always match macro-level pronouncements. In sum, American Parishes: Remaking Local Catholicism is an excellent new addition to the literature on American Catholicism. It presents a convincing argument for...

The Woman on the Windowsill: A Tale of Mystery in Several Parts. By Sylvia Sellers-Garcia (New Haven, Yale University Press, 2020) 281 pp. $32.50

Billed as a mystery, a macabre and “sensational” crime story, and “as a watershed moment…that radically changed the nature of justice and the established social order” in Spanish Colonial America, this book offers much more than such hyped-up promises. It is more significant for its method than for its history (or even for its framework as an Agatha Christie–style whodunit.)At the turn of the nineteenth century, in newly established Guatemala City, mutilated body parts began appearing on the windowsills of prominent citizens. They came from bodies in the local cemetery attached to a religiously run hospital at the edge of town, and from a morgue adjacent to the hospital. The local authorities attempted to discover not only who was responsible but also why he (the local magistrates at the time, like Sellers-Garcia, make that gendered assumption) was morbidly obsessed with the breasts, vulvas, ears, and hands of women, crudely separated from the dead. What message was he attempting to deliver? Was it meant to be blasphemous and anti-clerical? Was it class-derived (the windowsills belonging to leading figures in the city)? Was it more subtle? Or was the perpetrator simply deranged?Sellers-Garcia cannot say. Hence, as a thriller, the book is a complete failure. It never solves the mystery, leaving us thoroughly teased—but not perplexed. There are no potential culprits, except possibly the snobbish physician who investigated the cases and had his dissecting studio on the grounds of the hospital, but Sellers-Garcia never contemplates the medical man’s potential culpability. Nor is she able (after so many decades) to pinpoint possible perpetrators by type or name.But what Sellers-Garcia does so well is to use the mutilated bodies as a springboard to investigate the critical place of honor, the importance of decorum and civility, shame, policing, differential justice, the ease of femicide, the prevalence of spousal abuse, patriarchy, and class and race relations in colonial Guatemala. The mysterious body parts and the local and clerical authorities’ attempt to deal with them and to unravel meaning suggest a society where poverty and inebriation were common, where deviance of many kinds threatened public order, and where tension between common folk and gentry was inescapable.Sellers-Garcia has written a good social history, depicting the role and pursuits of the underclass in Guatemalan society admirably and fully. Her final chapter, about policia and policing, is important for what it says about civility, stability, and order in Guatemala and elsewhere. The conclusions that she develops are telling for much of Spanish America during the long eighteenth century.Despite these major accomplishments, the value of Sellers-Garcia’s book lies not primarily in providing a readable social history or the outlines of an unsolved moment-in-time mystery. Rather, Sellers-Garcia’s great achievement is to show readers how the most percipient historians employ their considerable talents. In a manner that very few other historians have exemplified so deftly in print, she follows trails blazed centuries ago in the hard-to-decipher archives as she questions her sources and reflects on the deeper significance of the archival innards. She invites readers to join her as she tries to solve not the mere mystery of the bodies but the critical puzzle of colonial lives and colonial social underpinnings.Historians think this way—such is her intent to make plain—pursuing their sleuthing instincts by cross-examining the available sources even when those sources are scarce, unreadable, or irreconcilable. Thus, what is unusually significant about this book is how Sellers-Garcia unveils her methodological instruments to invite even casual readers to share her mulling of incidence and coincidence, revealed and hidden events, and conjunctions of circumstance—all to demonstrate the craftsmanship and agile thinking of successful historiography.One more virtue: Her book fulfills what Sachs and Demos call “Artful History”—a narrative that is a literary as well as a historical contribution.1

Mourning Imam Husayn in Karbala and Kabul: The political meanings of ʿAshura in Afghanistan

This article explores Afghan Twelver Shiʿi commemoration of the martyrdom of Imam Husayn at the Battle of Karbala. It shows how the rites of remembrance and mourning celebrated on ʿAshura in Afghanistan has evolved in important ways from the late nineteenth century to the recent past. More than a pivotal event in the ritual calendar of Shiʿism, ʿAshura has served as an index of Afghan politics—and a field of contestation among state officials, clerical authorities, and the Shiʿi faithful. It has thus been at the center of struggles over the identity of the Afghan nation, the status of the Shia, and ritual practices in public life. Drawing on representations of ʿAshura produced by government authorities, state media, clerics, and lay people, this article examines how different actors have competed to give ʿAshura meaning and to develop distinctively Afghan forms of commemoration.

Confessing Responsibility for the Evils of Apartheid: The Dutch Reformed Church in the 1980s

ABSTRACT The Dutch Reformed Church (NGK) in South Africa during and before the apartheid years was long seen as an obstacle to social change. Occasional critical Afrikaner voices in the 1960s and early 1970s were firmly silenced by church authorities. After 1976, scattered clerical dissent was more clearly asserted, but at the national synod of 1982 it was abjured and critics were removed from positions of authority. At the 1986 synod, however, in a complete turnaround, church policy was radically reformed and former dissenters were returned to positions of clerical authority. As a result, in 1990, Professor Jonker of the theological faculty at Stellenbosch University was able publicly to confess his deep regret about his and his church’s responsibility for the manifest evils of apartheid. This paper provides a social and intellectual history of how such transformation was brought about, its personal costs and its ultimate limitations.

Review of In a Pure Muslim Land: Shiʿism between Pakistan and the Middle East by Simon Wolfgang Fuchs

By some estimates, the Shiʿis of Pakistan, roughly around 25 million people, represent, after that of Iran, the second-largest community of Shiʿis all around the world. Simon Fuchs’s book is among the few scholarly works which have tried to shed light on this relatively under-studied community. His study of Pakistani Shiʿis goes beyond their internal social and bureaucratic relations within the state, and concentrates more on the religious transnational trends which they have forged, especially after the 1979 Revolution in Iran. He argues how the Islamic Revolution in Iran, a watershed moment for Shiʿi transnationalism, was factored in by some Shiʿi scholars in Pakistan to consolidate their base throughout the community. Describing the evolution of these transnational ties, and its multi-layer interaction with the clerical authority and sectarian polemics in Pakistan, is the theme running through all chapters of the book.

How Anne Askew Read the Bible

ABSTRACT The two parts of Anne Askew's Examinations (1546–47) offer a first-hand retrospective narrative of the interrogation, condemnation, and execution of a woman who ran afoul of English clerical and secular authorities because she violated prohibitions on public Bible reading when she read the scriptures at Lincoln Cathedral. This was not a capital offense in itself, but her devotion to Luther's doctrine of sola scriptura (“by scripture alone”) led to her execution for denying orthodox belief in transubstantiation and the Real Presence of Jesus Christ in the Mass. Her experience provides an outstanding example of how reading and interpretation of the English Bible as it was translated by William Tyndale (1494–1536), individuals associated with him, and their successors led a literate laywoman to being burnt alive for heresy. This investigation clarifies our understanding of reading practices, the materiality of early modern books, book editing, contemporary politics and religion, and other subjects related to her Bible reading.

Take Heart: Growing as a Faith Community by Nan Deane Cano

Reviewed by: Take Heart: Growing as a Faith Community by Nan Deane Cano Mary Beth Fraser Connolly Take Heart: Growing as a Faith Community. By Nan Deane Cano, IHM. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 2016. 152 pp. $22.95. Nan Deane Cano, IHM explores in the book Take Heart: Growing as a Faith Community, the history of the Immaculate Heart of Mary Community in Los Angeles, its origins in Spain, its first trek to California, its evolution from the nineteenth century through the tumultuous Vatican II years, and its reinvention as a new, independent community without canonical status. Cano’s work offers an engaging and compelling exploration of the life of a religious community, reminding her readers that religious life is not static nor fixed in time. Cano, herself a member of this Los Angeles-based IHM community, writes with the keen insight of an insider, but provides the context needed to understand the complex and rich history of this religious community. Those unfamiliar with the longer IHM history in Spain and California often only have an awareness of its tumultuous 1960s dispute with church authorities. These were the “radical” nuns who voted to disband their religious congregation and had the audacity to form a new community under the initial guidance of Sister Anita Caspary. This decision and the recent “rediscovery” of artist Corita Kent are all that is generally known by outsiders to American Catholic women religious history. Cano, thankfully, gives readers a deeper [End Page 97] understanding of the longer history of the IHMs, effectively putting the 1969 decision to reform as a noncanonical community in its proper context. Take Heart is divided into two parts: “Lives of Service” and “Faith in Action.” The first section examines the community’s origins in Spain and the decision to send missionaries to the “New World” in 1871. Ten Daughters of the Most Holy and Immaculate Heart of the Blessed Virgin Mary left Europe arriving in New York on August 22, 1871. By the end of the month, they arrived in California and developed their ministerial work in education. Cano provides a good overview of the growth of the IHMs in Los Angeles, describing the establishment of schools and the growth of the community’s membership up to the 1960s. The last chapter of this first part, “The Heart of the Matter,” concentrates on the impact of Vatican II and the IHMs’ efforts to take to heart the messages of renewal. The turning point that was the dispute with clerical authority in Los Angeles in the mid-1960s did not come from nowhere. Cano, by providing the origins and development of the community through the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, shows that the IHMs understood who they were as a religious congregation, tracing the sisters’ growth and ultimate separation from the Spanish congregation. In this case, the California IHMs had the support of their local bishops to take this independent step. The step towards separation that occurred in 1969 came as a result of the ongoing conflict with Cardinal James McIntyre, who opposed this community’s efforts to modernize and embrace renewal. Cano’s work makes use of primary documents to highlight the spirit of the community since its foundation, and to get to the heart of the dispute in the 1960s with Cardinal McIntyre. She provides transcriptions of original documents that pinpoints the crux of the matter for the cardinal—holy obedience. As the IHM’s re-envisioned religious life in response to Vatican II, they moved beyond what McIntyre thought suitable for women religious. The second section, “Faith in Action,” picks up with “what happened next?” In the immediate aftermath of the creation of the new community, the IHMs found new work and defined new norms of religious life. The chapters provide an overview of the growth of the community, highlighting individual sisters and new ministries. Cano writes that “the aim of this book has been to chronicle one group of Catholic nuns’ transformation into an ecumenical faith community outlining the painful challenges along the way.” The author’s description is quite accurate. This, Cano offers, is a “hopeful story . . . in God’s hands” (99). Take Heart is not an...

‘Uncontested’ view of Shi’i networks: a reply to Corboz

The starting point for Corboz’s article ‘Shi’i Clerical Networks and the Transnational Contest over Sacred Authority by challenging assumptions that velayat-e faqih is an ‘uncontested’ position: Dynamics in London’s Shi’i Triangle’ is a proposal that gives emphasis to a transnational contest between maraji’ and the Iranian Supreme Leader over sacred authority. Corboz’s core argument seeks to undermine the view of the velayat-e faqih being the only relevant ‘model’ of clerical authority in today and future Shi’i worlds by exploring Shi’a networks in London. In response, I argue that the political and religious authority of velayat-e faqih cannot be contested with the religious functionality of marja’iyya in Shi’ism. Second, the notion of a ‘Shi’a Crescent’ as well as the accusation that Iran is orchestratings the Shi’a groups – via which the authoritarian regimes ensured their survival during the Arab Springs – should be rejected by accepting that even the most pro-Iranian groups do not necessarily tend to repeat the Iranian model of leadership. Finally, I emphasise that challenging the power to rule as a feature of velayat-e faqih by holding Iran’s Supreme Leader in the Islamic Republic of Iran with marja’iyya does not provide an adequate understanding of the multidimensional dynamics of Shi’ism.

Khandan-i-Ijtihad: Genealogy, history, and authority in a household of ‘ulama in modern South Asia

AbstractRevisiting the debate on how Islam's ‘learned men’ (‘ulama) have sustained their religious authority through changing historical circumstances, this article offers alongue duréeaccount of the so-called ‘Khandan-i-Ijtihad’: a family of renowned scholars and jurists who have held scholarly and popular precedence within South Asia's Shi‘i clerical networks for some 250 years. Instead of analysing the‘ulamaas a corporate group or a class of religious professionals, this article examines the‘ulamaas members of households (khandan,khanwadah) and emphasizes the important role of family lineage and inherited social influence as conduits of clerical leadership. Tracing both the genealogical succession and the vocational enterprises of this family over several generations, the article proposes a framework for understanding an individual scholar's relationship with the collective household, arguing that a cleric's own reputation (hasab-va-nasab) rests on a mingling of ancestral pedigree and personal achievement, with the stature of individual and household perpetually affirming and reinforcing each other in the making of Islamic clerical authority. Furthermore, the article establishes the importance of the‘ulama-biography (tazkirah) as itself a mechanism for actively sustaining the relevance of contemporary‘ulama, by perpetually memorializing their ancestors.

Iraq’s Sources of Emulation: Scholarly Capital and Competition in Contemporary Shiʿism

:Religious knowledge is at the heart of the Shiʿi system of clerical authority known as the marjaʿiyya. Given the multiplicity of more or less well-established claimants to the position, this article explores the scholarly credentials of the contemporary marjaʿ[source of emulation; pl. marājiʿ]. I conceptualize the marjaʿiyya in accordance with Pierre Bourdieu’s notion of the field in order to examine how scholarly capital is defined, and possibly redefined, by 14 religious scholars competing in this marjaʿiyya field in Iraq. To do so, I use their ‘official’ biographies in Arabic and analyze the types of credentials of scholarly capital that are put forth to legitimate the claims of these marājiʿ. I argue that, despite the multiplicity and diversity of contenders, there is a fair degree of homogeneity in the ways scholarly capital is defined. In the biographies, the marājiʿ’s scholarly capital is validated against three broad indicators: their inherited scholarly capital, which stems from their family background; their educational capital; and the intellectual-scientific prestige capital derived from their scholarly and teaching activities. The credentials emphasized in the different biographies are generally much alike, and if a marjaʿ does not satisfy them, ‘almost-like’ credentials are constructed. Abidance to shared codes and practices reflects, as well as contributes to, the stability of the marjaʿiyya field.

Book Review

Book Review

Radical Steele: Popular Politics and the Limits of Authority

AbstractIn modern critical imagination, Richard Steele is almost always seen as Joseph Addison's friend and collaborator, as half of the periodical essay-writing team devoted to the promotion of civility, urbanity, and a moral and well-mannered lifestyle. Scholars focus almost exclusively on the Tatler, the Spectator, and Steele's sentimental drama, The Conscious Lovers (1722), virtually ignoring his substantial canon of party journalism and pamphlets. Partly because of Steele's bitter and extensive quarrel with Jonathan Swift—or because most scholars assume that Swift got the best of him—he is now rarely taken seriously as a political player in late Stuart and early Hanoverian England. This essay focuses on Steele the party writer—and especially on his attitude toward religio-political authority and the sanctity of vox populi. Though Steele is now described as (like Addison) “not so enthusiastic about the potential for public politics,” he was for excellent reasons regarded by contemporaries as a writer not only trying to politicize the people but actually succeeding in doing so. This essay attempts to recontextualize Steele's polemical contributions; he has been read alongside Addison and other Whig wits, but he rarely figures in discussions of the history of political ideas in early eighteenth-century England, in discussions of debates about authority, resistance, and the nature of obligation, about public religion and liberty of conscience, the political implications of heterodoxy, and the use of reason as a challenge to dogmatic clerical authority.

Contested Rights: Clerical and Lay Authority in the Holland Mission

This article studies eleven conflicts between Catholic nobles and the leaders of the Holland Mission. The nobles claimed the right to nominate and present priests in the clandestine Catholic churches and chapels in their jurisdictions; the apostolic vicars and internuncios refused to grant such privileges to members of the laity. Through the assertion of patronage rights, the Dutch Catholic nobility tried to expand their influence over the Holland Mission and voiced their preference for particular priests. As such, these conflicts offer a window into the inner workings of the Missio Hollandica and the Dutch Catholic community, revealing the complex and dynamic interplay between clergy and laity. Moreover, a number of these quarrels represent early instances of laypeople taking a stance in the battle between Jansenists and their opponents, a larger conflict which eventually lead to a schism in the Catholic Church in the Dutch Republic. This analysis therefore provides a cross-section of the Dutch Catholic community and shows how slowly but surely this community disintegrated into warring factions of clergymen and laypeople.

OTORITAS KYAI DALAM MENENTUKAN KARAKTERISTIK MODEL PONDOK PESANTREN DARUSSALAM BLOKAGUNG BANYUWANGI

Kyai, in the tradition of boarding schools to be a central figure. In addition to leading Islamic boarding schools, the term kyai relates to a title that is emphasized on glory and voluntary recognition of someone who is qualified in Islamic science as a cultural leader of society. If the cleric figure is interpreted as understanding above, it is necessary to study the figure of the clerics in determining the style of an institution, in this case the authority of the clerics in the pesantren. This study aims to find out the authority of the clerics in determining the characteristic models of the Darussalam Islamic Boarding School in Blokagung Banyuwangi. The research method uses a qualitative approach. In this study it can be concluded that the form of clerical authority in Darussalam Blokagung Banyuwangi Islamic boarding school is directed at religion, political attitudes, education and teaching. The direction was in the form of policies and advice which were then carried out in the leadership activities. The characteristics of Darussalam Blokagung Banyuwangi Islamic boarding school are included in the characteristics of a modern cottage, where Islamic boarding schools maintain a salaf cottage model while adding curriculum from the government.Keywords: Authority, Kyai, Model, Pondok Pesantren