Clean Services Research Articles

PENINGKATAN EFISIENSI PELAYANAN PUBLIK DI DAERAH: PRIVATISASI ATAU OPTIMALISASI BUMD ? Belajar dari Kasus Perusahaan Daerah Air Minum

Efficient public service can be achieved by private or state company, depend on the competency of the service. There are some theories explain the public service efficiency; the ownership theory, public choice theory and organization theory. In the case of PDAM (Perusahaan Daerah Air Minum - Municipal Waterworks), external and internal factors are the source of a non optimal service. External factors are: local government multi role (as operator and regulator), the double role as a company and official agency, monopolistic market, single shareholder, political driven tariff, and ineffective community control. Those external factors affect the internal PDAM such as work motivation based on sense of belonging and incentive structure, spirit of innovation, and service and customer orientation service. Therefore a clean water service regulation is required in order to get dynamic competition, tariff which support company financial condition and high efficiency followed by fair and broad scope of service. Keyword: privatization, efficiency, organization.

The silent victims of humanitarian crises and livelihood (in)security: A case study among migrants in two Chadian towns

Once a humanitarian disaster receives coverage in the global media, the international community usually mobilises to reduce the most severe consequences. However people in Chad are experiencing endemic crises that are detached from speci!c triggers, and they are not receiving any international assistance to help relieve the hardships they face. "is study involves 111 migrant households from central Chad that, as a result of war and drought, have lost everything and now have to live in squatter areas of N’Djamena and Mongo, facing uncertainty and threats while negotiating their livelihoods. Qualitative and quantitative methods have been combined in this study to reveal the intriguing story of their daily lives in the face of complex and endemic crises. Anthropometric and health data were generated to determine the nutritional status of mothers and their children under !ve. Life histories, in-depth interviews and participatory observation allowed the researchers to capture the negotiation strategies they use to access food and shelter, their experiences of food insecurity and sanitary vulnerability, and the consequences these have on daily life. Results indicate that 62% of households were female headed, there were high rates of acute (40-50%) and chronic (35-40%) malnutrition and 46% of the mothers were underweight and anaemic. Infant mortality rates were also high at 30%-42% and 97% of the children had had incomplete or no vaccinations. No households had access to clean water, sanitation or public-health services. Endemic corruption and abuse by the authorities were identi!ed as major sources of day-to-day insecurity. Theese migrants were not expecting any improvement in their livelihoods in the foreseeable future and saw these miserable conditions as normal.

Access to clean energy services for the urban and peri-urban poor: a case-study of Delhi, India

Indian cities are rapidly growing. Their growth has been accompanied by the growth of urban slums and subsequent challenges to access basic urban services like water, sanitation, clean energy, and transport for the urban poor. Despite its importance for basic survival, and from an economic and health (both personal and environmental) perspective, clean energy supply is not recognised as a basic urban service, as a result of which the poverty alleviation and basic infrastructure provision programmes in India have not addressed it completely. The situation is also aggravated by the existence of distorted energy markets in India, which have resulted in the true benefits of energy subsidies not reaching the poor and therefore hindering their access to cleaner fuels. Data on the status of physical access of households in India to different energy sources, whether households have access to different energy markets, whether energy is affordable to them, quality of energy supply, etc. is meagre. On the basis of a stakeholder interaction approach, following a set of logically sequenced questions to assess availability, accessibility, affordability, reliability and continuity of usage of clean fuels, this study assesses the current levels of access to clean forms of energy for cooking, lighting and productive/economic purposes, for the urban and peri-urban poor in Delhi, the capital of India, and identifies challenges and policy measures to improve clean energy access.

The supply of clean energy services to the urban and peri-urban poor in South Africa

South Africa, compared to many other developing countries, enjoys a number of advantages which favour national electrification and the extension of benefits to the poor. These include the economic capacity to carry out a subsidised national electrification programme, a fairly favourable policy environment, free basic electricity [1] to assist the poor and a reliable (until recently) low-cost electricity generation capacity. This paper assesses the household energy situation in the rapidly growing poor urban and peri-urban areas of South Africa in general and analyses in greater depth a primary household energy survey conducted in Imizamo Yethu in Hout Bay. The key objective of the study is to identify viable and proven policy options that can assist in providing clean, affordable and more sustainable energy options for the urban and peri-urban poor. Access to electricity is not the main problem of the majority of the urban and peri-urban poor, but rather the ability to afford the service. People living in settlements not approved for housing by local government experience the gravest forms of energy poverty. Some make use of extension cords, with the reported attendant problems of less security of supply, danger, theft of wires and higher costs than metered customers. Access to paraffin (kerosene) is very good because of the infrastructure network, and paraffin appliances are generally cheap compared to electric and LPG appliances. Access to LPG is regarded as not good because of a poor network, distance to retail outlets, and the high cost of gas and appliances. Access to electricity does not automatically lead to higher levels of productivity and income generation. Most of the small businesses at household level are of a retail nature. The problem the urban poor experience is broader than electricity supply. It is rooted in the housing shortage, land issues and government's inability to deal with in-migration to urban areas.

Modern energy access in peri-urban areas of West Africa: the case of Dakar, Senegal

This article focuses on the status of peri-urban zones of Dakar, Senegal with respect to access to clean energy services for household use and also for productive purposes. To explore this issue we have conducted surveys covering 280 households and 70 businesses from 7 peri-urban areas of Dakar. We also relied on secondary data collection and stakeholder interviews to obtain information. Our results indicate that the main barriers to modern energy access in peri-urban Dakar are: the lack of a proper understanding of the characteristics of peri-urban areas, creating an institutional gap and an energy policy vacuum; land tenancy issues; the prohibitive connection policy for households located far from the grid (more than 30 m) and finally the progressive withdrawal of the governmental subsidy on LPG for the peri-urban poor.

Climate Change and Health: Strengthening the Evidence Base for Policy

Climate Change and Health: Strengthening the Evidence Base for Policy

ANALISIS KINERJA BIDAN DALAM MELAKSANAKAN PENCEGAHAN INFEKSI PADA PERTOLONGAN PERSALINAN DI BIDAN PRAKTEK SWASTA (BPS) KOTA PADANG TAHUN 2005

In Padang 2004, there were 10 maternal death from 13.923 life birth, and 30% were attended by midwife. Infection was 10% as a cause of all maternal death. It can be concluded that infection was one of the maternal death causes due to inadequate on doing infection prevention on delivery. Infection prevention is one of the "Five red yarn" that has be taken in giving safe and clean delivery services. Present of puerperal infection was an indicator on quality obstetric services that given by midwife on delivery process and also an indicator on midwifes quality services. It is a descriptive analytic research with cross sectional design. Population included all private practice midwife in Padang (n 300). Sample was taken by proportional random sampling (81 sample). Data were collected from November 1" till December 31s' using questionnaire and observation. There were no significant relationship on ages and period of practice with midwife quality services, but there were significant relationship on educational grade and training with midwife quality services.

People

This article announces that CH2M HILL employees from around the world have raised more than $170,000 in support of Water For People, an international nonprofit organization based in Denver, Colorado, that works in developing countries to establish programs for locally sustainable drinking water resources, sanitation facilities, and health and hygiene education. Together with cash and in‐kind contributions, CH2M HILL and its employees committed more than $220,000 to advance the work of the charitable organization. Water For People estimates that $29 will provide clean water or sanitation services in a developing country for a person's lifetime.

Energy, poverty and governance

To make any progress towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), a new approach to energy systems for the poorer nations is needed. Equally, a new approach to energy should shape thinking in the developed and industrializing world about energy futures. All countries need to have access to clean, affordable and reliable energy services that do not exacerbate the climate change risks. A global energy policy will emerge, but by the backdoor of environment policy. This article is in three parts. First, it examines the problem in the developing world. Second, it ‐establishes a framework for evaluating the approach to energy systems. Third, it argues that technology transfer as commonly practised is not an appropriate vector. In concluding, this article sets out an approach at international level.

Cochrane review: Vaccines for women to prevent neonatal tetanus

AbstractBackgroundTetanus is an acute, often fatal, disease caused by an exotoxin produced by Clostridium tetani. It occurs in newborn infants born to mothers who do not have sufficient circulating antibodies to protect the infant passively, by transplacental transfer. Prevention may be possible by the vaccination of pregnant and/or non‐pregnant women with tetanus toxoid, and the provision of clean delivery services. Tetanus toxoid consists of a formaldehyde‐treated toxin which stimulates the production of antitoxin.ObjectivesTo assess the effectiveness of tetanus toxoid, administered to women of childbearing age or pregnant women, to prevent cases of, and deaths from, neonatal tetanus.Search strategyWe searched the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group Trials Register (December 2004) , The Cochrane Library (Issue 1, 2005), MEDLINE (1966 to December 2004), EMBASE (1974 to December 2004). We also used the results from handsearching and consultations with manufacturers and authors.Selection criteriaRandomised or quasi‐randomised trials evaluating the effects of tetanus toxoid in pregnant women or women of childbearing age on numbers of neonatal tetanus cases and deaths.Data collection and analysisThree review authors independently assessed trials for inclusion, data extraction and trial quality.Main resultsTwo trials (10,560 infants) were included. One study (1919 infants) assessed the effectiveness of tetanus toxoid in preventing neonatal tetanus deaths. After a single dose, the relative risk (RR) was 0.57 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.26 to 1.24), and the vaccine effectiveness was 43%. With a two or three dose course, the RR was 0.02 (95% CI 0.00 to 0.30); vaccine effectiveness was 98%. No effect was detected on causes of death other than tetanus. The RR of cases of neonatal tetanus after at least one dose of tetanus toxoid was 0.20 (95% CI 0.10 to 0.40); vaccine effectiveness was 80%. Another study, involving 8641 children, assessed the effectiveness of tetanus‐diptheria toxoid in preventing neonatal mortality after one or two doses. The RR was 0.68 (95% CI 0.56 to 0.82); vaccine effectiveness was 32%. In preventing deaths at 4 to 14 days, the RR was 0.38 (95% CI 0.27 to 0.55), and vaccine effectiveness 62% (95% CI 45% to 73%).Authors' conclusionsAvailable evidence supports the implementation of immunisation practices on women of childbearing age or pregnant women in communities with similar, or higher, levels of risk of neonatal tetanus, to the two study sites. More information is needed on possible interference of vaccination by malaria chemoprophylaxis on the roles of malnutrition and vitamin A deficiency, and on the quality of tetanus toxoid production and storage.Plain language summaryVaccinating childbearing women against tetanus rather than influenza or cholera appears to decrease incidence of tetanus in newborn babies but possible adverse effects not assessedNeonatal tetanus is an infection causing rigidity, muscle spasm and often death in newborn babies. It is quite common in income‐poor countries and comes from insufficient protection being passed from mother to baby in utero together with infection getting into the baby through the umbilical cord stump. The review of studies assessing vaccinating women of childbearing age showed fewer cases of neonatal tetanus when two or three doses were used, but no potential adverse effects were assessed. Administrative and operational aspects also need to be of good quality for vaccination programmes to be effective.

Cost-Effectiveness of Drop-in-Centres to Prevent HIV Among Injecting Drug Users, IDUs, in Karachi, Pakistan

Background: The HIV epidemic in Pakistan is at present concentrated among high-risk groups including IDUs. Pakistan has approx. 75 000 IDUs - 12 300 are living in Karachi. The HIV prevalence rate among the IDUs in Karachi is 26%. During 2005 and 2006 Pakistan Society, an NGO working for vulnerable populations in Pakistan, established three Drop-In-Centres, DICs, in Karachi including outreach services using motorbikes. At present 850 IDUs visit at a daily basis for clean needles, counselling and care services including detoxification (10%). Objectives: 1) To discuss the methodologies used to determine the cost-effectiveness of IDU interventions in Pakistan when up-scaling to 60% coverage as recommended by UNAIDS, 2) to examine how these interventions fair comparative to the findings from a literature review, and finally 3) to suggest policy options to improve efficiency of providing HIV preventive services that will keep the HIV epidemic from spreading into the general population. Methodology: The cost information was collected in May - June 2006. The costs included are financial and economic costs from the perspective of the provider. The Rapid Costing Approach, RCA, was used to generate total costs as well as the unit costs over five years under different up-scaling assumptions. The behaviour change for the IDU population in Karachi is derived from surveys undertaken in 2005/2006 and imputed into a dynamic mathematical model (IDU 2.4) with data from the IDU population in Karachi. The costs of the IDU interventions in Karachi is being compared with the findings from a literature survey on costing and cost-effectiveness studies in Asia and Eastern Europe, which is also characterized by HIV epidemics driven by IDUs and sex workers. Results: The results show unit costs of IDU interventions in the range of USD 74-105 per IDU/year ranging from 100% utilisation of capacity to 70%. The cost-effectiveness ratio is estimated at USD 78-242 per HIV over five years - the range covering different coverage of intervention (7-60%) and 3% or 6% discount rate, respectively. A comparison with results from Bangladesh (3 year time horizon) shows that the IDU interventions provide a relatively better cost-effectiveness ratio at USD 64-200 per HIV averted comparative to Karachi IDU interventions at USD 117-260. Both IDU approaches are very cost-effective by any measure at USD 2-25 per DALY gained. Discussions: The discussion includes how sensitive the results are to changes of key variables and what it will take to ensure such favourable cost-effectiveness ratio; the validity and reliability of the mathematical model; and finally what messages the result bring to the table of decision makers.

A Decision Support Tool for Wastewater Catchment Management

The water industry over the years has primarily focussed on upgrading and investing in clean water provision. However, as research into the science and management of clean water services has progressed rapidly, wastewater provision and services has been slower. Focus, though, is now shifting within Industry and Research into wastewater services. The water regulator, Ofwat, for England and Wales demands the Sewerage Undertakers demonstrate efficient management of wastewater systems in order to obtain funding for Capital Investment projects. South West Water, a Water Service Provider and Sewerage Undertaker located in the South West of England, identified a need gap in their asset management strategies for wastewater catchments. This paper will introduce the production of a Decision Support Tool, DST, to help SWW proactively manage their Wastewater Catchments, examining Sewage Treatment Works, Pumping Stations and Networks. The paper will discuss some concepts within the DST, its production, testing and a brief case study. The DST provides a framework for prioritising catchments to optimise investment choices and actions. The Tool ranks catchments utilising Compromise Programming, CP, as well as AHP Pair-wise comparisons for preference weights. The DST incorporates Asset models, a Whole life Costing Module, as well as a Decay and Intervention Module.

Take a Giant Step: Investing in Preschool Education in Emerging Nations

HE SPEED at which globalization and technological innovation have transformed and flattened economic, political, and social relationships in the past decade requires a new approach to investments related to early childhood. While most of the international education and development community, led by UNICEF, has focused during this period on the critical importance of universal primary education, compelling research findings have made it clear that, to serve the long-term interests of emerging nations, a different emphasis is necessary. We must recognize the urgent need for greater investment in preschool education--an essential engine for expanding human potential and accelerating economic in those nations now poised to become the next leaders of the global economy. (1) Increased investment in preschool education is especially important to meet the needs of the world's most populous nations, including China, India, Brazil, and Indonesia. By 2015 these four countries combined will educate more than 10 times the number of children educated in the United States. (2) Many of these nations have made strong commitments to and established early best practices for promoting health and good nutrition but remain far behind more developed countries in their capacity to prepare children for primary school. By building on the findings of experimental research into the elements of high-quality early care and education (ECE) and on our knowledge of how children's minds and bodies learn, grow, and survive, even under adverse conditions, we can now more confidently design new early learning initiatives for use internationally. (3) THE CASE FOR INVESTMENT IN EARLY CARE AND EDUCATION Research in various disciplines has demonstrated how and why high-quality early learning opportunities and activities that promote healthy development matter for children, families, communities, and the society at large. While most of the longitudinal research on early intervention programs has been conducted in the U.S., significant development research in countries like China, India, and Brazil (4) and program evaluations in Europe and Canada have led to similar conclusions. * From birth to age 5, children rapidly acquire capabilities that form the building blocks of their subsequent development. In addition to making remarkable linguistic and cognitive gains at this stage, young children exhibit dramatic progress in constructing their emotional, social, regulatory, and moral capacities. The critical dimensions of early development are intertwined; each requires focused attention. (5) * During a child's early years, a growth in learning, health, and emotional development gains momentum. Interrupting this trajectory can result in the need for powerful and expensive interventions later. (6) * In this era of globalization, many traditional relationships among children, families, schools and other community institutions, and the economy are rapidly transforming, and the needs of young children are not being addressed adequately. (7) * In developing countries, child survival programs that concentrate on reducing infant mortality rates, increasing immunization rates, improving nutrition, and providing clean water and sanitation services have produced long-term economic benefits. (8) In the U.S., high-quality ECE programs have produced significant benefits for low-income families in terms of increased achievement, decreased rates of grade retention, fewer special education referrals, and lower crime, delinquency, and dropout rates. (9) These outcomes indicate that emerging nations could further their development by bolstering their current efforts on behalf of children with more investment in early care and education. EMERGING NATIONS' FIRST STEPS In contrast to the U.S., Canada, and highly developed countries in Europe, most emerging nations have begun only recently to systematically develop and finance educational programs for children aged 3 to 6. …

Environmental Kuznets Curve Hypothesis: A Survey

The Environmental Kuznets Curve ( EKC) hypothesis postulates an inverted-U-shaped relationship between different pollutants and per capita income, i.e., environmental pressure increases up to a certain level as income goes up; after that, it decreases. An EKC actually reveals how a technically specified measurement of environmental quality changes as the fortunes of a country change. A sizeable literature on EKC has grown in recent period. The common point of all the studies is the assertion that the environmental quality deteriorates at the early stages of economic development/growth and subsequently improves at the later stages. In other words, environmental pressure increases faster than income at early stages of development and slows down relative to GDP growth at higher income levels. This paper reviews some theoretical developments and empirical studies dealing with EKC phenomenon. Possible explanations for this EKC are seen in (i) the progress of economic development, from clean agrarian economy to polluting industrial economy to clean service economy; (ii) tendency of people with higher income having higher preference for environmental quality, etc. Evidence of the existence of the EKC has been questioned from several corners. Only some air quality indicators, especially local pollutants, show the evidence of an EKC. However, an EKC is empirically observed, till there is no agreement in the literature on the income level at which environmental degradation starts declining. This paper provides an overview of the EKC literature, background history, conceptual insights, policy and the conceptual and methodological critique.

Benefit Evaluation of Human Settlements Development Funded by SPL JBIC INP-23 in Indonesia

The Government of Japan and the Government of Indonesia has signed a loan agreement Sector Program Loan (SPL) INP 23 for Settlement Sector (Human Settlement) through the Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC) which is intended to overcome the economic crisis and its impact in Indonesia since 1997. Research this carry out an evaluation of the benefits of settlement activities that have been implemented in order to know how much contribution the benefits of the settlement Sector program implemented through the SPL IVI-23, both the recipient community, relevant agencies that manage the project, and local governments that implement and oversee the development of the project . The survey was conducted by using a regional approach, ex post facto, and institutional. The selection of cities and counties samples were selected based on three things: the completeness of the program, the amount of funds, and the number of packets. Next, the results of the rank- ings were selected based on 1) the highest ranking, middle, and low; 2) distribution based on the distribution of the three parts of Indonesia, the western, central, and east; and 3) exclude conflict areas. The results showed that in general the development and results of settlement construction is quite beneficial for the government and society. Among other things more organized neighborhoods, neighborhoods healthier, improved infrastructure, and increased mobility of society. Special benefit shows the influence of the change in service, use of services, and its impact. Development of clean water service level (L) is satisfactory, the level of use (U) range in the level of useful and very useful, and beneficial impact. Drainage construction provide the level of service (L) is very satisfactory, the level of use (U) ranged between levels is useful and very useful, and beneficial impact. For the construction of basic infrastructure settlement (IS and hi, i) provide the level of service (L) is very satisfactory, the level of use (U) range from useful to extremely useful, and gives effect (B) is useful.

DSI: distributed service integration for service grid

This paper presents DSI, a distributed service discovery and integration utility for service grid. The goal of DSI is efficiently to improve service publishing, deletion and lookup, decentralized control, scalability, and availability. DSI comprises a logically global metadata pool and a double-layered DHT (Distributed Hash Table). Efficient service publishing and lookup are achieved by adopting DHT. Clean service deletion is guaranteed by time-stamping. And system availability is improved by replication combined with automatic indexer selection. Experiments show that DSI can achieve short response time, low processing cost and high availability.

On the HYway—sustainable assets in Germany's energy state's portfolio

Historically, North Rhine-Westfalia (NRW), Germany's energy state with the heavily industrialized Ruhr area in its middle, provided coal and steel for the industrialization of the country in the late 18th and the 19th century, was key in the recovery process after WWs I and II, and stands today for the ongoing successfully pursued transformation process from carbonaceous energy raw materials to high-tech energy technologies. Step by step, prevailing energy policy has become energy technology policy! The state hosts Germany's partner in the development club for a hydrogen-based zero-CO 2 coal fired power plant, as well as the biggest PV production capacity in the country; it operates a significant share of Germany's almost 9 GW e wind parks, and runs a remarkable co-operative fuel cell development network of academia and industry. So far, the youngest baby is the rapidly growing hydrogen energy economy structure, consisting of hydrogen technologies for more or less all the links of the hydrogen energy conversion chain, particularly clean hydrogen production from fossil fuels, including CO 2 sequestration, or from renewable energy sources. Thus, the transformation process of NRW from coal and steel to solar- and hydrogen-based high-tech energy technologies seems exemplary for many historically similarly structured world regions. The paper tries to offer an insight into the build-up of hydrogen-based decarbonized, hydrogenated, and, thus, dematerialized energy markets. On the energy HYway, energy technologies have taken the lead. They provide more clean energy services at the back end of the energy conversion chain from less environmentally harmful and climate change risking carbonaceous energy raw material at its front end. They grant urgently needed exergetization (exergy=energy–anergy) of the nation's energy system, and, not least, they are preconditional for otherwise irrational energy sustainability: H 2 is the paving stone of the HYway's sustainable pavement!

Delinking Economic Growth from Environmental Degradation? A Literature Survey on the Environmental Kuznets Curve Hypothesis

The effect of economic growth on environmental quality is much under dispute. A number of empirical studies have made the claim that there exist in some income ranges a positive relation between per capita income and some measure of environmental quality. According to this inverted U-shaped pattern of different pollutants relative to per capita incomes in different countries which is also called the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC), environmental pressure increases up to a point as income goes up; after the turning point environmental quality improves as income keeps rising. Possible explanations for this pattern are seen in the progression of economic development, from clean agrarian economies to polluting industrial economies to clean service economies. This trend is enhanced through the transfer of cleaner technology from high-income countries to low-income countries and the tendency of people with higher income having a higher preference for environmental quality. Since this relationship is so fundamental to questions of economic development and sustainability it has provoked a vast load of research over the last seven years supporting but also heavily criticizing the results and conclusions. This paper gives an overview of the literature published on this topic to date and the conceptual, methodological and fundamental critique put forward.

An Alternative to API 14E Erosional Velocity Limits for Sand-Laden Fluids

The current practice for eliminating erosional problems in piping systems is to limit the flow velocity Ve to that established by the recommended practice API RP 14E based on an empirical constant (C-factor) and the fluid mixture density ρm as follows: Ve=C/ρm. The API criterion is specified for clean service (noncorrosive and sand-free), and it is noted that the C-factor should be reduced if sand or corrosive conditions are present. The validity of the equation has been challenged on the basis that the API RP 14E limits on the C-factor can be very conservative for clean service and is not applicable for conditions when corrosion or sand are present. Extensive effort has been devoted to develop an alternative approach for establishing erosional velocity limits for sand-laden fluids. Unfortunately, none of these proposals have been adopted as a standard practice because of their complexity. This paper will review the results of these studies and proposes an alternative equation that is as simple as the API 14E equation. This alternative equation has the following form: Ve=SDρm/W. The value of the S-factor depends on the pipe geometry, i.e., bend, tee, contraction, expansion, etc. Using the units for mixture flow velocity Ve in m/s, fluid mixture density ρm in kg/m3, pipe diameter (D) in mm and sand production W in kg/day, the value of the S-factor is 0.05 for pipe bends. The accuracy of the proposed equation for predicting erosion in pipe bends for fluids containing sand is demonstrated by a comparison with several multi-phase flow loop tests that cover a broad range of liquid-gas ratios and sand concentrations. [S0195-0738(00)00202-8]

Renewable energy policy: How will clean energy services be provided in the future?

Evolution analysis of electricity generation industry in relation with environment protection, market forces and technological progresses