Industrial Clay Research Articles

Dissolution Mechanisms and Surface Charge of Clay Mineral Nanoparticles: Insights from Kinetic Monte Carlo Simulations

The widespread use of clay minerals and clays in environmental engineering, industry, medicine, and cosmetics largely stems from their adsorption properties and surface charge, as well as their ability to react with water. The dissolution and growth of minerals as a function of pH are closely related to acid–base reactions at their surface sites and their surface charge. The vivid tapestry of different types of surface sites across different types of clay minerals generates difficulties in experimental studies of structure–property relationships. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate how a mesoscale stochastic kinetic Monte Carlo (kMC) approach altogether with atomistic acid-base models and empirical data can be used for understanding the mechanisms of dissolution and surface charge behavior of clay minerals. The surface charge is modeled based on equilibrium equations for de/protonated site populations, which are defined by the pH and site-specific acidity constants (pKas). Lowered activation energy barriers for these sites in de/protonated states introduce pH-dependent effects into the dissolution kinetics. The V-shaped curve observed in laboratory experiments is reproduced with the new kMC model. A generic rate law for clay mineral dissolution as a function of pH is derived from this study. Thus, the kMC approach can be used as a hypothesis-testing tool for the verification of acid–base models for clay and other minerals and their influence on the kinetics of mineral dissolution and growth.

A Preliminary Study: Physicochemical Characteristics and the Recommendations for Industrial Application of the Mlaten Clay Materials, Mojokerto, East Java, Indonesia

Abstract Clays are industrial minerals that are widely utilized for various industrial fields. Eastern Java has a high potential of clay minerals (±348 million tons), including Mojokerto. The research location is in Mlaten and its surroundings, Mojokerto, East Java and covers an area of ± 16 km2. The massive utilization and potential in this area has not been comprehensively followed by research and exploration of clay minerals. In this case, the potential of clay minerals needs to be investigated so that prospective locations can be determined along with recommendations for optimal utilization. To determine the physical properties, which are plasticity test, grain size test, and forming water test, were conducted on 3 samples of raw clay and 1 sample of industrial clay. Furthermore, the geochemical analysis is to determine the major oxide compounds and was conducted on 8 raw clay samples. The lithology units of the study area can be divided into 2 units, consisting of sand-clay unit and weathered upper Quaternary volcanic unit. The Mlaten clay deposits are found in both units. Physical characteristics of clay in Mlaten are consisting of 2,34% - 2,47% clay grain size and having of moderate to high plasticity. The recommendation for forming water in clay utilization ranges from 15-43%. On the other side, Mlaten clay is geochemically characterized by high content of SiO2 (50-59,6%), Fe2O3 (7,24-10,15%), and Al2O3 (16,9-19,9%), but low content of K2O (0,63-1,04%), Na2O (1,44-2,49%), MgO (1,04-1,96%), and CaO (2,42-4,87%). Based on the physicochemical characteristics, Mlaten clay are recommended as raw materials for the manufacture of earthenware ceramic industry, cement industry, and as absorbents in the palm oil industry.

Enhancing reactivity in muscovitic clays: Mechanical activation as a sustainable alternative to thermal activation for cement production

The use of calcined clays in the construction industry is thriving. However, muscovitic or illitic clays, which constitute a large portion of the available clay resources, are hardly activated by thermal processes. This work aims to enhance the reactivity of raw muscovitic clay through mechanical activation. Various combinations of milling time and rotation speed were evaluated. The results confirmed that a highly amorphous material was obtained through mechanical activation, while thermal activation led to muscovite dehydroxylation without inducing amorphisation, resulting in the formation of crystalline dehydroxylated muscovite. The reactivity of the activated clays as a potential precursor for cement production was assessed through pozzolanic activity measurements and Si and Al potential availability. Both confirmed that mechanically activated muscovitic clay presented significantly higher reactivity than calcined muscovitic clay, obtaining an excellent pozzolanic material or an alternative cement precursor. Accordingly, mechanical activation of muscovitic clays could effectively introduce these types of clay in the cement industry.

Physical and Mechanical Properties of Fired Industrial Waste-Clay Brick from Sugarcane Bagasse

Fired industrial clay brick depletes clay soil, wastes energy and wastes money. Population growth has increased agricultural waste. Many studies have been conducted on the production of fired industrial waste clay brick from sugarcane bagasse ash. This research reviews the physical and mechanical properties of sugarcane bagasse fired industrial waste clay brick. Fired industrial waste clay brick- filled with sugarcane bagasse ash provide better mechanical and physical properties than normal fired bricks. Reduce clay soil mining, agricultural waste, and fired industrial bricks reduces energy and costs. This supports sustainable development and helps the environment (SDG).

A universal hydro-mechanical coupled behavior model for clay-bearing strata—Molecular-level simulation approach

Clay minerals in soils and rocks exhibit large volume change upon interaction with water and this behavior becomes even more complex when the strata are being stressed by the engineering and environmental loads. Therefore, a realistic prediction of the hydro-mechanical behavior of the clay-bearing strata is always a challenge due to their coupled swelling-mechanical response in the cases of geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering problems, nuclear waste storage in clay-bearing rock repositories, shale gas extraction, and other uses of clay in the manufacturing industry. All the existing behavior models have restricted applications in the engineering and other fields of practice mainly due to the partial consideration of the structure and fabric of clay-bearing strata in the model formulation. In this study, a hydro-mechanical behavior model has been formulated using the parameters acquired from the molecular-level simulations and modeling of the volume change and stress–strain behavior of the clay-bearing structure. The Molecular Mechanics and Molecular Dynamic simulations were performed on the natural structure of the clay-bearing strata formulated using Monte Carlo technique. The mathematical model, developed from the simulation results, can predict the overall hydro-mechanical behavior of clay-bearing strata for all possible combinations of clay minerals, non-clay minerals, salts causing cementation of the soil/rock structure, confining pressures, and the induced strain levels. The developed model has successfully been validated through laboratory and field testing on the clay-bearing strata in both the elastic and elasto-plastic regions of the stress–strain behavior and also from the data of two (02) swelling clays (MX-80 and FEBEX Bentonite) from the existing literature, supporting the universal nature of the developed behavior model.

Mineralogical and Physico-Chemical Characterization of Arslanlar Clay for Potential Industrial Applications

This paper is a study from mineralogical and physico-chemical points of view about the possibility of using Arslanlar clay in tile and brick industry. Firstly, chemical analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential thermal analysis/thermogravimetry and plasticity measurements were performed to determine the unfired characterization of the clay sample. It was observed that illite, smectite, kaolinite, calcite, hematite, orthoclase and quartz were the main minerals. Plasticity tests revealed that Arslanlar clay was very high plastic clay. Then the clay test samples were prepared by pressing and firing separately at temperatures between 850° and 1100°C to evaluate physicochemical characteristics. Water absorption, linear shrinkage, bulk density, bending strength tests and colour measurement were performed. Also the fired samples were analyzed by XRD and scanning electron microscopy. It was observed that the porosity decreased and the densification increased with increasing temperature, especially above 1050°C. Evaluations concluded that this clay can be used in production of structural ceramics and also pottery.

Global industrial clay market size: projected economy surge to $7.8 bn by 2030, driven by strong CAGR of 5.6%: emerging trends and opportunities

Global industrial clay market size: projected economy surge to $7.8 bn by 2030, driven by strong CAGR of 5.6%: emerging trends and opportunities

Incorporation of granitic wastes and Malha Formation clays in the sewage pipes industry: insights on industrial using and environmental impact

Incorporation of granitic wastes and Malha Formation clays in the sewage pipes industry: insights on industrial using and environmental impact

Possibility of complex use of bentonite clays and modeling of research processes


 
 
 The efficient and complex use of resources of high quality bentonite clays, as well as the application of relatively low quality bentonite clays in accordance with their mineralogical and lithological properties are identified in the article. As Azerbaijan’s oil industry developed, interest in studying the geological structure of bentonite deposits increased. Prospects for bentonite production to reach 1-1.5 million tons of annual productivity in the next 40-50 years are related to the industrial development of the Daşsalakhli deposit, the largest in terms of resources (explored reserves are 180 million tons). The Dashsalakhli field is unique in terms of mineral quality and is one of the largest deposits in the world. Since the Dashsalakhli field has been researched and prepared for industrial development, and taking into account the demand of the world market, it is possible to increase the production and pro- cessing of bentonites by 1.5-2 times with the production of various commodity products in the republic. For this purpose, a unique and powerful “Azbentonite” processing enterprise equipped with modern equipment was established in Baku. One of the most important physical properties of bentonite clay which determines its industrial use is swelling. The swelling of clays is determined by their granulometric and mineral composition, as well as the content of absorbed cations. Massive bentonites have a relatively low density due to the significant moisture content, in most cases greater than 2.09 g/cm3. Attention was paid principally to the study of the degree swelling of the studied clay samples . The process of swelling in clays depends on their mineralogical composition. As is known, according to P.A. Rebinder, clays with a hard crystal lattice are less exposed to swelling. The elastic skeletal lattice of «Dashsalahli» bentonite clay, which is characteristic of other bentonite clays, causes the swelling process to intensify on contact with water. Bentonite clays are char- acterized by high water absorption or water retention capacity compared to other types of clay. One of the important natural properties of bentonites is their dispersibility, which depends on the type and amount of functionally modifiable clay cations .The more alkali metal (usually sodium) cations in the diffuse layer of bentonite particles, the higher the dispersion. In order to comprehensively study the physical and chemical properties of «Dashsalahli» bentonite clay, samples were taken from the northern, southern, western, eastern and central directions of the clay deposit, and research work was carried out. As a result of the research, it was established that «Dashsalahli» bentonite clay belongs to the class of small dispersed, alkali-based montmorillonite clays and is characterized by plastic texture. The composition of these clays is weakly carbonate and consists mainly of quartz and plagioclase minerals. Reconstructive diagnostic and electron-microscopic data of the corresponding montmorillonite showed that these clays have variable cation capacity. The analysis of «Dashsalahli» bentonite clay ultimately examined the use of this clay in the production of drilling fluids used in wells drilled in the oil industry and in other industries. Bentonite clays, as well as their processed products, have many special qualities and are widely used in certain leading sectors of the economy, as well as in many industries. The possibility of their application in high-quality detergent used in the steel casting industry, granulation of iron ore concentrate, drilling of deep wells, production of expanded clay in the construction industry, production of special purpose aluminum sheets, and their application in the oil refining, chemical , food , liquid and gas in- dustries was determined. The feature of using low-condition bentonite clays and opening rocks in various fields ensures the full use of this raw material and the complex development of the deposit. Currently, bentonite clays, especially their montmorillonite varieties, are considered an important raw material in the world market due to the use of bentonites in the production of iron ore pellets.
 
 

Assessment of Mineralogical Characteristics of Clays and the Effect of Waste Materials on Their Index Properties for the Production of Bricks.

Significant research investigations on the characteristics of unexplored clay deposits are being conducted in light of the growing need for clay in the ceramic industry and the variable chemistry of clays. Parallel to this, the generation of waste materials like fly ash, ferrochrome slag, and silica fume is also increasing, responsible for environmental degradation. This paper aims to study the mineralogical properties of pure clays (one specimen from Siberia and five specimens from different locations in Turkey), and the effect of mentioned waste materials on the index properties of clays obtained. This study is divided into two phases, wherein in the first phase, the pure clay specimens are analyzed against mineralogical properties (i.e., chemical composition, thermal analysis, and particle size distribution). While in the second phase, index properties of pure clay specimens and clay specimens modified with 0-50% fly ash, ferrochrome slag, and silica fume are analyzed. The results reveal that the clay specimens from Turkey (USCS classification: CL) are fit for the ceramic industry and bricks production, and incorporation of waste materials can further improve their index properties. It is also observed that incorporation of 10-30% fly ash and ferrochrome slag have higher efficiency in reducing the plasticity index of clays studied as compared to the addition of silica fume.

The New Standard Is Biodigital: Durable and Elastic 3D-Printed Biodigital Clay Bricks

In a previously published study, the authors explained the formal design efficiency of the 3D-printed biodigital clay bricks 3DPBDCB: a project that aimed to change the conventional methods of clay brick design and mass production. This was achieved by employing the behavioural algorithms of reaction-diffusion and the shortest path that were extracted from the exact material physical properties and hydrophilic behaviours of clay and controlled material deposition 3D printing to create sustainable clay bricks. Sustainability in their use in the built environment and their production processes, with full potential sustainability aspects such as passive cooling, thermal and acoustical insulation, and bio receptivity. The current work studies the mechanical properties of the 3D-printed biodigital clay bricks as elastic and durable clay bricks whose properties depend mainly on their geometrical composition and form. Each of the three families of the 3D-printed biodigital clay bricks (V1, V2, V3) includes the linear model of a double line of 0.5 cm thickness and a bulk model of 55% density were tested for compression and elasticity and compared to models of standard industrial clay bricks. The results revealed that the best elasticity pre-cracking was achieved by the V2 linear model, followed by the V3 linear model, which also achieved the highest post-cracking elasticity-enduring until 150 N pre-cracking and 200 N post-cracking, which makes the V3 linear model eligible for potential application in earthquake-resistant buildings. While the same model V3-linear achieved the second-best compressive strength enduring until 170 N. The best compressive strength was recorded by the V1 linear and bulk model enduring up to 240 N without collapsing, exceeding the strength and resistance of the industrial clay bricks with both models, where the bulk and the perforated collapsed at 200 N and 140 N, respectively. Thus, the mass production and integration of the V1 bulk and linear model and the V3 linear model are recommended for the construction industry and the architectural built environment for their multi-aspect sustainability and enhanced mechanical properties.

Computational Fluid Dynamics Studies in the Drying of Industrial Clay Brick: The Effect of the Airflow Direction

The manufacture of ceramic brick goes through the stages of raw material extraction, clay homogenization, material conformation, drying and firing. Drying is the phase that needs greater care, as it involves removing part of the moisture from the brick, in order to preserve its quality after process. This work aims to predict heat and mass transfer in the drying of ceramic bricks in oven using computational fluid dynamics. Considering the constant thermophysical properties, a transient three-dimensional mathematical model was used to predict mass and energy transfer between the material and air during the process. Drying simulations at temperature of 100°C were performed with the air flow in the frontal direction to the ceramic brick holes and the results were compared with those obtained for the air flow in the perpendicular direction to the brick holes reported in the literature. It was found that the position of the brick in relation to the direction of air flow inside the oven affected directly the drying and heating kinetics, and the distribution of temperature and moisture content inside the brick. The positioning of the holes in the brick parallel to the direction of the air flow resulted in reduction at the drying time and, consequently, in energy savings in the process, more uniform drying, and improvement in the product quality.

Microbial biomass production using sugarcane industrial by-products and their application to Nile tilapia aquaculture

The sugarcane industrial wastewater is considered as one of the main sources of River Nile pollution. Here we study the possibility of using sugarcane wastewater effluent amended with molasses and clay factory as a culture medium for growth and biomass production of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and Azotobacter chroococcum and the possibility of using this biomass for Oreochromis niloticus aquaculture. Results of this study indicated that some physico-chemical analyses of waste water are non-compliant with Law 48/1982 such as decreasing values of dissolved oxygen (0.77 mg/1), increasing temperature (40-50°C) and increasing values of chemical oxygen demand (31.5 mgO2/l). These pollutants were dealt for growth and biomass production of Azotobacter chroococcum and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii after amendment with molasses and industrial clay (press mud). Results showed that the wastewater amended with 1% press mud, 1% molasses and 0.5g/l CaCO3 was the best for A. chroococcum. In addition, high growth of Chlamydomonas was obtained in the sugarcane wastewater amended with 1% molasses with 0.5% press mud. Moreover, addition of Azotobacter had positive effect on growth of Chlamydomonas especially when added after 24 hours of Chlamydomonas growth. Biomass of both C. reinhardtii and A. chroococcum (which was grown on sugar can industrial by-products) has high potential for Oreochromis niloticus aquaculture, where highest weight gain and specific growth rate of fish were recorded. Further research work is needed to confirm the safety and viability of this microbial biomass produced from industrial sugar cane by-products in Nile tilapia aquaculture.

Valorisation of firewood ash waste for fired clay ceramics production

The objective of this work was to investigate the valorisation of firewood ash waste as an alternative raw material for clay ceramic production, through replacement of industrial plastic clay up to 20 wt.%. For this purpose, clay ceramic pieces were produced by uniaxial pressing and fired at temperatures ranging from 800 °C to 1100 °C. The technical properties of the fired clay ceramic pieces have been determined. It was found that the technical properties of the clay ceramic pieces depend on the firewood ash waste amount and firing temperature. The fired pieces incorporated with up to 20 wt.% of firewood ash waste showed a water absorption level of 9.90 to 16.62 % and flexural strength of 4.12 to 12.02 MPa, indicating their conformity for clay ceramic production (bricks and roofing tiles). Obtained results confirmed the feasibility of valorisation of firewood ash waste in the production of fired clay ceramics.

Behind the Manufacturing of Industrial Clay Bricks: Drying Stage Predictions Using CFD

Drying of ceramic materials plays important role for industry, involving questions related to investments, energy consumption, product quality, and environmental pollution. In this sense, this work aims to predict heat and mass transfer during the drying process of an industrial clay brick in oven. Simulations were carried out by computational fluid dynamics (Ansys CFX software). Results of the drying and heating kinetics and the moisture content and temperature distributions of the product at different elapsed times are shown and analyzed. The results showed a good agreement between the experimental data, of the surface temperature and the average moisture content, and the numerical results. From the results, it was verified that the proposed mathematical modeling was adequate, providing predicted results in accordance with the experimental data used. Furthermore, numerical results showed that an increase in drying-air temperature and a decrease in relative humidity lead to an increase in heating and moisture removal rates. In the research, it was observed that mass diffusion coefficient increased with increasing drying-air temperature.

Heating rate effect during sintering on the technological properties of Brazilian red ceramics

Unbalanced energy consumption in the production of ceramic artifacts is responsible for considerable undesirable impacts, such as increased emissions of polluting gases, excessive consumption of fuel materials, land degradation, and unpredictable financial costs. By contrast, the practice of optimizing the ceramic sintering, which in associated with firing of high temperature, can result in increased productivity and reduced production costs preserving an environmentally friendly production system. Moreover, it allows further improvements in the quality of the final product. This work compares the effect of different sintering cycles, with heating rates of 2, 15, and 30 °C/min, on the technological properties of a Brazilian industrial clay ceramic body. Initially the clay ceramic specimens were characterized in terms of mineralogical, chemical, and physical properties. Specimens were prepared by extrusion and fired at temperatures of 800, 900, and 1000 °C. The evaluated properties by standard tests were water absorption, post-firing linear shrinkage, and flexural strength. It was found that owing to sintering carried out at higher heating rates, red ceramic products with superior technological properties were obtained. This is an unprecedented conclusion for common clay ceramics produced in Brazil. Based on the promising obtained results, in a clear and detailed way, the benefits of rapid sintering cycle application for conventional brick production are evidenced.

Experimental study of the possibility of using a silica clay as a source of silicon in the production of glass in the Turkestan region of Kazakhstan

Three series of experiments were carried out to study the possibility of replacing quartz sand in the initial charge for the production of glass with a silica clay. The experiments were carried out at atmospheric pressure and temperatures of 900–1200 С. It is shown that the complete replacement of quartz sand with a silica clay and the use of the presented initial compositions based on silica clay in the glass industry will lead to an increase in the temperature in the technological scheme of production, an increase in energy consumption and is economically unprofitable.Production schemes are promising, in which, along with the silica clay, the original charge contains cullet. It is shown that the disappearance of crystalline phases in this case in the samples with the addition of the silica clay occurs at a lower temperature than in the samples without the silica clay.

Handmade Traditional Kiln Clay Bricks from Tamilnadu, India: Mineralogy, Temperature Effect and Mechanical Analysis

This work shows the changes in properties of industrial clay bricks collected from the traditional kiln situated at bank of Cauvery, Tamilnadu, India. Samples of local raw clay material already in use for the production of bricks and industrially produced fired brick materials were characterized by combined multi-analytical techniques to determine the relationships among chemical, mineralogical, textural and mechanical properties. FTIR absorption spectra of re-fired industrial clay bricks to different temperatures in air in the laboratory supply information about type of clay mineral presence, its original firing temperature and firing atmosphere. The minerals like quartz, plagioclase (albite or anorthite) and orthoclase were identified using XRD. In order to study the quality of the bricks they were submitted to mechanical analysis such as compressive strength, flexural rupture strength, water absorption, porosity and bulk density. The mechanical analysis reveals that when laboratory re-firing temperature exceeds the original firing temperature of industrial bricks, the compressive strength, flexural rupture strength and bulk density increases, whereas water absorption and porosity values decreases. The results showed that there is a drastic variation in the quality of the bricks collected from different parts of the same kiln.

Improvement of aluminium extraction from low-grade kaolinite by iron oxide impurities: Role of clay chemistry and morphology

This study explored the influences of iron impurities present in a low-grade kaolinite (17.46% Fe2O3) on the aluminium dissolution kinetics in comparison to a high-grade kaolinite (0.93% Fe2O3) in hydrochloric acid with common industrial clay to acid ratios. The kinetic data was the first kaolinite dissolution data to be modelled to the Brouers, Weron and Sotolongo (BWS) fractal kinetic equation, revealing the low-grade kaolinite had an activation energy of 22.21 kJ mol−1 in contrast to a high-grade kaolinite with an activation energy of 91.37 kJ mol−1. The high-grade kaolinite’s activation energy was consistent with literature results; however, the low-grade kaolin’s activation energy was 3.5 times lower than that reported in literature. In order to determine the impact of iron impurities and disorder in the kaolinite on the reaction kinetics, the low-grade kaolin had the iron phases selectively extracted whereas the high-grade kaolin was spiked iron prior to the kinetic study. The results found that the activation energy increased with the decreasing iron content of the clay. The iron present within the low-grade kaolinite aided in reducing the activation energy by two mechanisms: 1) chemically, by the formation of ferric chloride, a known leaching agent, and 2) physically, by the dissolution of iron oxide within the clay structure, which increased the number of active sites for acid attack.

Wax and bentonite blends for prototyping industrial clay development: preliminary results

Wax and bentonite blends for prototyping industrial clay development: preliminary results