Clayey Till Research Articles

A Submerged and Buried Mesolithic Site off Svanemøllen Harbor, Copenhagen, Denmark: Acoustic Detection (Human-Altered Lithic Detection) and Verification by Means of Coring

Teledyne Chirp III high-resolution seismic data were acquired over a three-year period at a water depth of 6.0–9.0 m, with a clear concentration of acoustic “haystack” features, in the dredged Svanemøllen Harbor, Copenhagen. The recordings show haystacks related to preserved shallow basins and rivers in the paleo-coastal setting. Eleven short vibrocores were retrieved below these pronounced haystacks and a sandy interval, underlain by clayey till and overlain by harbor mud, which represent the basin configuration. Two cores contained four pieces of knapped flint in the sandy interval (statistical density of around 230 pieces per square meter), while the remaining cores did not reach the desired depth. Finite Element (FE) modeling revealed that the small pieces of knapped flint were resonant and that the acoustic impedance of the flint was high. The Svanemøllen Harbor site is a hitherto unknown buried Stone Age site, and this is the first time ever that an unknown submerged, buried Stone Age site has been acoustically detected (using Teledyne Chirp III), verified by means of coring and modeled using FE modeling. The Innomar and Geopulse data acquired at the site did not register any haystacks. Due to the global sea level rise after the Last Glacial Maximum, a significant part of the world’s submerged Stone Age sites must be expected to be buried in seafloor sediments.

Microbial life in preferential flow paths in subsurface clayey till revealed by metataxonomy and metagenomics

BackgroundSubsurface microorganisms contribute to important ecosystem services, yet little is known about how the composition of these communities is affected by small scale heterogeneity such as in preferential flow paths including biopores and fractures. This study aimed to provide a more complete characterization of microbial communities from preferential flow paths and matrix sediments of a clayey till to a depth of 400 cm by using 16S rRNA gene and fungal ITS2 amplicon sequencing of environmental DNA. Moreover, shotgun metagenomics was applied to samples from fractures located 150 cm below ground surface (bgs) to investigate the bacterial genomic adaptations resulting from fluctuating exposure to nutrients, oxygen and water.ResultsThe microbial communities changed significantly with depth. In addition, the bacterial/archaeal communities in preferential flow paths were significantly different from those in the adjacent matrix sediments, which was not the case for fungal communities. Preferential flow paths contained higher abundances of 16S rRNA and ITS gene copies than the corresponding matrix sediments and more aerobic bacterial taxa than adjacent matrix sediments at 75 and 150 cm bgs. These findings were linked to higher organic carbon and the connectivity of the flow paths to the topsoil as demonstrated by previous dye tracer experiments. Moreover, bacteria, which were differentially more abundant in the fractures than in the matrix sediment at 150 cm bgs, had higher abundances of carbohydrate active enzymes, and a greater potential for mixotrophic growth.ConclusionsOur results demonstrate that the preferential flow paths in the subsurface are unique niches that are closely connected to water flow and the fluctuating ground water table. Although no difference in fungal communities were observed between these two niches, hydraulically active flow paths contained a significantly higher abundance in fungal, archaeal and bacterial taxa. Metagenomic analysis suggests that bacteria in tectonic fractures have the genetic potential to respond to fluctuating oxygen levels and can degrade organic carbon, which should result in their increased participation in subsurface carbon cycling. This increased microbial abundance and activity needs to be considered in future research and modelling efforts of the soil subsurface.

Quantification of contaminant mass discharge from point sources in aquitard/aquifer systems based on vertical concentration profiles and 3D modeling

Point sources with contaminants, such as chlorinated solvents, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), or pesticides, are often located in low-permeability aquitards, where they can act as long-term sources and threaten underlying groundwater resources. We demonstrate the use of a 3D numerical model integrating comprehensive hydrogeological and contamination data to determine the contaminant mass discharge (CMD) from an aquitard into the underlying aquifer. A mature point source with a dissolved chlorinated solvent in a clayey till is used as an example. The quantitative determination is facilitated by model calibration to high-resolution vertical concentration profiles obtained by direct-push sampling techniques in the aquifer downgradient of the contaminant source zone. The concentration profiles showed a plume sinking with distance from the source characteristic for such aquitard/aquifer settings. The sinking is caused by the interplay between infiltrating water and horizontal groundwater flow. The application of 3D solute transport modeling on high-resolution profiles allowed for determining the infiltration rate, the hydraulic conductivity in the aquitard, and, ultimately, the CMD. Different source zone conceptualizations demonstrate the potential effects of fractures and sorption in source zones in aquitards on CMD development. Fractures in the aquitard had a minor influence on the current CMD determined with the presented approach. Still, fractures with hydraulic apertures larger than 10μm were crucial for the temporal development of the CMD and plume. A thorough characterization of the source zone conditions combined with high-resolution concentration profiles and detailed modeling is valuable for shedding light on the probable future development of groundwater contamination arising from sources in aquitard/aquifer settings and evaluating remedial actions.

Long-term leaching through clayey till of N,N-dimethylsulfamide, a Persistent and Mobile Organic Compound (PMOC)

Environmental pollution with Persistent and Mobile Organic Compounds (PMOC) from anthropogenic activities is an increasing cause for concern. These compounds are readily leached to groundwater aquifers and are likely to resist degradation, putting pressure on groundwater resources. Pesticides can form PMOCs upon degradation in the environment. The PMOC N,N-dimethylsulfamide (DMS) was the most frequently detected pesticide metabolite in Danish drinking water wells in 2020, although the pesticidal use of the last parent compound (tolylfluanid) ended in 2007. This study aimed to improve the understanding of the leaching of the PMOC DMS from clayey tills by combining a review of compound properties, sources and use, comprehensive field observations and numerical flow and solute transport modeling. The modeling explored the mechanisms of DMS retention during vertical transport in clayey till and the fingerprint in the underlying aquifer. The results were supported by detailed field observations at an agricultural site with strawberry production. Porewater samples were collected from clayey till to a depth of 12m bgs by a custom designed installation method of suction cups. Groundwater sampling (249 samples) was designed to provide vertical concentration profiles at various distances from the presumed sources. The review of properties showed that the parent compounds and intermediates degrade quickly in topsoil, releasing the highly persistent and mobile DMS. We tested the effect of fractures on transport with different hydraulic apertures and a scenario without fractures by numerical modeling. The results showed that the presence of fractures can smooth the breakthrough curve below the clayey till, leading to faster breakthrough, lower maximum concentration, and several decades of prolonged leaching in simulations with the largest aperture (20μm). The fracture-matrix interaction is a possible explanation for the observed delay of leaching from clayey till. The vertical concentration profiles in groundwater were used for identifying the sources at the field site and testing source strengths. Assigning one point source (200μg/L) and two diffuse sources (40-50μg/L) to the model produced vertical concentration profiles that compared well with observed field data in clayey till and the aquifer. All results were integrated into a conceptual model for the environmental fate of PMOCs in soil and groundwater. The findings of this study imply that the presence of fractures in clayey till should be considered in conceptual site models, since they can substantially prolong the leaching of PMOCs to groundwater. The integration of comprehensive field investigations and numerical modeling is key to understand the fate of PMOCs in complex field systems with different source types. Together with widespread occurrences of PMOCs in groundwater systems, the results highlight the need for improved approval procedures for pesticides and biocides which considers their persistent and mobile metabolites.

High‐Resolution Geological Information from Crosshole Ground Penetrating Radar in Clayey Tills

AbstractHeterogeneous glacial deposits dominate large parts of the Northern Hemisphere. In these landscapes, high‐resolution characterization of the geology is crucial for understanding contaminant transport. Geological information is mostly obtained from multiple boreholes drilled during a site investigation, but such point‐based data alone do not always provide the required resolution to map small‐scale heterogeneity between boreholes. Crosshole ground penetrating radar (GPR) is suggested as a tool for adding credible geological information between boreholes at contaminated site investigations in industrial sites where infrastructure, such as electrical installations, can pose a challenge to other geophysical methods. GPR data are sensitive to the dielectric permittivity and the bulk electrical conductivity, which can be related to the distribution of water content and sand/clay occurrences. Here we present a detailed crosshole GPR dataset collected at an industrial contaminated site in a clay till setting. The data are processed using a novel inversion approach where information on changes in the velocity and attenuation of the radar signal are obtained independently. The GPR results are compared to borehole logs, grain size analyses, and relative permeability data from the site. The GPR data analysis provided valuable information on the understanding of the lateral geological variability. A silt layer with a thickness of a few decimeters, likely important for flow characterization, was confirmed and resolved by GPR data. Our findings suggest that crosshole GPR has the potential for contributing with high‐resolution geological information by filling the data gap between boreholes, thereby becoming a relevant tool in contaminated site investigations.

Accounting for Modeling Errors in Linear Inversion of Crosshole Ground‐Penetrating Radar Amplitude Data: Detecting Sand in Clayey Till

AbstractMapping high permeability sand occurrences in clayey till is fundamental for protecting the underlying drinking water resources. Crosshole ground penetrating radar (GPR) amplitude data have the potential to differentiate between sand and clay, and can provide 2D subsurface models with a decimeter‐scale resolution. We develop a probabilistic straight‐ray‐based inversion scheme, where we account for the forward modeling error arising from choosing a straight‐ray forward solver. The forward modeling error is described by a Gaussian probability distribution and included in the total noise model by addition of covariance models. Due to the linear formulation, we are able to decouple the inversion of traveltime and amplitude data and obtain results fast. We evaluate the approach through a synthetic study, where synthetic traveltime and amplitude data are inverted to obtain slowness and attenuation tomograms using several noise model scenarios. We find that accounting for the forward modeling error is fundamental to successfully obtain tomograms without artifacts. This is especially the case for inversion of amplitude data since the structure of the noise model for the forward modeling error is significantly different from the other data error models. Overall, inversion of field data confirms the results from the synthetic study; however, amplitude inversion performs slightly better than traveltime inversion. We are able to characterize a 0.4–0.6 m thick sand layer as well as internal variations in the clayey till matching observed geological information from borehole logs and excavation.

Parastā oša (Fraxinus excelsior) stāvoklis Latvijā mežaudžu destrukcijas aktīvajā fāzē. Meža augšanas apstākļi un kvartāra nogulumi

At present, 87.9% of all ash stands in Latvia are found on dry soils, where groundwater does not affect the root system of trees, and 94.3% of ash stands are distributed in eutrophic habitats, saturated with exchange bases and biologically active nitrogen. In Latvia, ash stands are found mainly on the loose sediments of sandy till and clayey till in highland and rise landscapes, as well as on silty glaciolymnic sediments in the lowlands. Sand sediments in the coastal lowlands and riverine landscapes, as well as peat sediments in both highland and lowland landscapes are not suitable for ash forest stands.

Transport of Tracers and Pesticides Through Fractured Clayey Till: Large Undisturbed Column Experiments and Model‐Based Interpretation

AbstractLeaching of contaminants through fractured aquitards such as clayey tills may occur due to typically slow matrix advection and diffusion, or it can be dramatically enhanced in the presence of preferential flow through fractures and macropores. Sorption also plays a crucial role since it can significantly impact contaminant leaching and residence times. These different mass‐transfer mechanisms imply a distinct transport behavior and very different time scales for contaminant leaching toward underlying aquifer systems. However, the prevalent controls on contaminant transport and their effects are difficult to assess. This paper shows a detailed characterization of flow and transport processes under water‐saturated conditions in two large undisturbed columns (LUCs) collected from two visually similar fractured/macroporous clayey tills typical for the Northern hemisphere. Flow‐through tracer and pesticide experiments revealed a contrasting transport behavior. In one column, transport through fractures/macropores was dominant, whereas matrix advection and diffusion had a distinct influence on solute transport in the other column. Detailed 3D discrete‐fracture‐matrix models were developed to illuminate prevalent controls on contaminant transport and to quantitatively interpret the flow‐through experiments with a minimal number of fitting parameters. Nonequilibrium sorption kinetics were included to reproduce the transport behavior of the considered pesticide. The parameters determined from the two LUC experiments were integrated in a vertical cross‐section model to investigate the influence of varying fracture properties on vertical solute transport through surficial clayey till aquitards. The analysis showed that small fracture apertures in deeper parts of the aquitard could substantially prolong solute migration times and control solute fluxes.

Reconstruction of pre-Illinoian ice margins and glaciotectonic structures from airborne ElectroMagnetic (AEM) surveys at the western limit of Laurentide glaciation, Midcontinent U.S.A.

Early and early Middle Pleistocene glaciations in midcontinental USA are poorly understood relative to more recent Illinoian and Wisconsinan glaciations, largely because pre-Illinoian glacial landforms and deposits are eroded and buried. In this paper, we present a new interpretation of buried, pre-Illinoian glacial features along the Laurentide glacial margin in northeastern Nebraska using Airborne ElectroMagnetics (AEM) supplemented with borehole logs and 2 m LiDAR elevation data. We detect and map large-scale (10 1 –10 2 km) geological features using contrasts in electrical resistivity. The Laurentide glacial limit is marked by a continuous (>120 km) contrast between conductive (<15 Ω-m), clayey tills and resistive (>40 Ω-m) sandy sediments. Several smaller (10 2 km 2 ) till salients extend 10s of km westward of this margin. We recognize a lithologically heterogeneous zone characterized by variable resistivity and complex geophysical structures extending as much as 17 km west of the glacial limit. This zone is interpreted as a glaciotectonic thrust complex, and it is analogous to a similar thrust complex in Denmark where structural analysis of co-located seismic and AEM surveys provides a standard for comparison. Our study suggests that the maximum advancement of pre-Illinoian glacial ice into Nebraska involved extensive deformation of sedimentary strata, local overriding of these deformed strata by smaller ice tongues, and emplacement of tills as much as 30 km west of the principal Laurentide ice margin. These insights provide the first glimpse of the large-scale stratigraphic architecture of glacial sediments in Nebraska and point to future clarifications of the geology and geomorphology of the Laurentide glacial limit. • Ours is the first comprehensive view of buried pre-Illinoian sediments and glaciotectonic structures in the region. • Airborne ElectroMagnetic (AEM) surveys are a novel approach to visualizing Quaternary stratigraphy. • We interpret ice tongues and thrust complexes extending from the western margin of the Laurentide ice sheet.

A sediment-mixing process model of till genesis, using texture and clay mineralogy data from Saginaw lobe (Michigan, USA) tills

AbstractWe present a sediment-mixing process model of till genesis based on data from surface tills of the Saginaw lobe terrain in lower Michigan. Our research uses a spatial approach to understanding glacial landsystems and till genesis. We sampled calcareous till at 336 upland sites and at 17 sites in lacustrine sediment of the Saginaw Lake plain. The loamy tills have bimodal grain-size curves, with a fine-texture mode near the silt–clay boundary and a sand mode. Spatial grouping analysis suggests that tills can be divided into six groups, each with different textures and clay mineral compositions that vary systematically down-ice. The similarity among groups with respect to the silt–clay mode and clay mineralogy argues for a common origin for the fines—illite-rich lacustrine sediment of the Saginaw Lake plain. Fine-textured sediments were probably entrained, transported, and deposited down-ice as till, which also becomes sandier and enriched in kaolinite, reflecting increasing mixing with shallow sandstone bedrock with distance from the lacustrine clay source. Clayey tills on the flanks of the Saginaw terrain may reflect proglacial ponding against nearby uplands. A process model of progressive down-ice mixing of preexisting fine lake sediments with crushed/abraded sandstone bedrock helps to better explain till textures compared with a purely crushing/abrasion process model.

Cross-borehole tomography with full-decay spectral time-domain induced polarization for mapping of potential contaminant flow-paths

Soil contamination from industrial activities is a large problem in urban areas worldwide. Understanding the spreading of contamination to underlying aquifers is crucial to make adequate risk assessments and for designing remediation actions. A large part of the northern hemisphere has quaternary deposits consisting of glacial clayey till. The till often has a complex hydrogeological structure consisting of networks of fractures, sand stringers and sand lenses that each contribute to a transport network for water, free phase and dissolved contaminants. Thus, to determine the possible flow-paths of contaminants, the geology must be described in great detail. Normally, multiple boreholes would be drilled in order to describe the geology, but boreholes alone do not provide the needed resolution to map such sand lenses and their connectivity. Cross-borehole full-decay time-domain induced polarization (TDIP) is a new tool that allows for quantitatively mapping not only contrasts in bulk resistivity, but also contrasts in spectral IP parameters. We present a feasibility study with synthetic tests and a field application on a clayey moraine environment with embedded sand lenses, with hitherto unseen ground-truth verification. Indeed, the investigated area was above the water table, which allowed for digging out the entire area after the investigation for an unprecedented description of the lens interconnectivity. The TDIP data were acquired with a full-waveform acquisition at high sampling rate, signal-processed by harmonic denoising, background removal, and de-spiking, and subsequently the full-waveform data were stacked in log-increasing tapered gates (with 7 gates per decade). The resulting TDIP decays, with usable time-gates as early as two milliseconds, were inverted in terms of a re-parameterization of the Cole-Cole model. The inverted models of the field data show a remarkable delineation of the sand lenses/layers at the site, with structure in both the resistivity and the IP parameters matching the results from the ground-truthing. The synthetic examples show that in models both below and above the groundwater table, sand-lenses with thicknesses comparable to the vertical electrode spacing can be well resolved. This suggests that full-decay cross-borehole TDIP is an ideal tool for high-resolution sand-lens imaging.

A Large Undisturbed Column Method to Study Flow and Transport in Macropores and Fractured Media.

Intact soil columns can bridge the gap between field studies and idealized laboratory investigations of flow and transport in macropores and fractured media. However, the value of intact column studies is often hampered by shortcomings such as lack of column intactness, small column size, and column rim flow, which can cause serious artifacts and hamper system understanding. The flexible-wall pressurized large undisturbed column (LUC) method overcomes these limitations and is a valuable approach to analyze fluid flow and solute transport in macroporous and fractured geological formations. The method investigates subsurface processes in complex media, mimicking in situ conditions and facilitating the control of system boundary conditions including effective stress. In recent years, considerable experience has been gained through different applications of the LUC approach. Modeling tools have also been developed for a detailed interpretation of flow and transport processes in LUC systems. This paper describes the steps of the LUC method from column excavation in the field to experimental setup in the laboratory. The description encompasses the key features of the sampling of LUCs in field excavations, the laboratory setup, the procedure for hydraulic and transport experiments, as well as practical challenges and potential issues during operation of an LUC system. Application examples with a fully three-dimensional numerical model of LUC tracer experiments are also presented to illustrate the quantitative interpretation of transport processes in macroporous clayey tills.

Preferential flow paths shape the structure of bacterial communities in a clayey till depth profile.

ABSTRACTPreferential flow paths in subsurface soils serve as transport routes for water, dissolved organic matter and oxygen. Little is known about bacterial communities in flow paths or in subsoils below ∼4 m. We compared communities from preferential flow paths (biopores, fractures and sand lenses) with those in adjacent matrix sediments of clayey till from the plough layer to a depth of 6 m. 16S rRNA gene-targeted community analysis showed bacterial communities of greater abundance and diversity in flow paths than in matrix sediments at all depths. Deep fracture communities contained a higher relative abundance of aerobes and plant material decomposers like Nitrospirae, Acidobacteria and Planctomycetes than adjacent matrix sediments. Similarly, analyses of the relative abundances of archaeal amoA, nirK and dsrB genes indicated transition from aerobic to anaerobic nitrogen and sulphur cycling at greater depth in preferential flow paths than in matrix sediments. Preferential flow paths in the top 260 cm contained more indicator operational taxonomic units from the plough layer community than the matrix sediments. This study indicates that the availability of oxygen and organic matter and downward transport of bacteria shape bacterial communities in preferential flow paths, and suggests that their lifestyles differ from those of bacteria in matrix communities.

Soil Domain and Liquid Manure Affect Pesticide Sorption in Macroporous Clay Till.

Pesticides frequently leach through clayey tills, even when they are expected to be strongly adsorbed. In this study, we observed that sorption of two strongly sorbing pesticides, tebuconazole and glyphosate, varied by more than an order of magnitude across soil domains in 5-m-deep clay till profiles with biopores and fractures. Eight soil domains were identified in each of the profiles: five matrix soils and three in the macropores. Tebuconazole sorption was controlled by soil organic matter content, except in the reduced matrix, which was low in organic matter, where there was surprisingly high sorption. Glyphosate showed high variation in sorption between fractures and matrix soil from the same depths. The domain-specific sorption of both tebuconazole and glyphosate was, however, overruled by dilute liquid manure. Sorption of tebuconazole was, as expected, decreased by liquid manure in several domains, but tebuconazole sorption increased in a few domains due to sorption of the manure-derived organic matter itself. Liquid manure unexpectedly had a greater effect on glyphosate sorption, which was strongly decreased by dissolved organic matter and phosphate in the manure. The variation in sorption across domains, as well as the effects of liquid manure, should be taken into account when assessing leaching risks.

Mapping sand layers in clayey till using crosshole ground-penetrating radar

Fluid transport through clayey tills governs the quantity and quality of groundwater resources in the Northern Hemisphere. This transport is often controlled by a 3D network of macropores (biopores, fractures, and sand lenses) within the clayey till. At present, a nondestructive technique that can map and characterize the sand-lens network does not exist, and full excavation or extensive drilling is therefore the only solution. Acquisition and modeling of crosshole ground-penetrating radar (GPR) may provide the answer to this problem. We collected 1D and 2D crosshole GPR data at a field site in Denmark from four 8 m deep boreholes with horizontal distances varying between 2.64 and 5.05 m. We find that the depth, thickness, and tilt of a coherent sand layer within the clayey till (approximately 0.4–0.6 m thick), as well as the underlying sand formation, can be mapped accurately using GPR data. We efficiently identify the sand as a highly resistive section with high electromagnetic (EM) wave velocities, whereas the clayey till is conductive with lower EM wave velocities. We find that the exact location of the sand occurrences is better delineated by the increase in amplitude than the increase in EM wave velocity. We believe that crosshole GPR may contribute significantly to groundwater protection and contaminant remediation initiatives.

Measuring Concentrations of Dissolved Methane and Ethane and the 13 C of Methane in Shale and Till.

Baseline characterization of concentrations and isotopic values of dissolved natural gases is needed to identify contamination caused by the leakage of fugitive gases from oil and gas activities. Methods to collect and analyze baseline concentration-depth profiles of dissolved CH4 and C2 H6 and δ13 C-CH4 in shales and Quaternary clayey tills were assessed at two sites in the Williston Basin, Canada. Core and cuttings samples were stored in Isojars® in a low O2 headspace prior to analysis. Measurements and multiphase diffusion modeling show that the gas concentrations in core samples yield well-defined and reproducible depth profiles after 31-d equilibration. No measurable oxidative loss or production during core sample storage was observed. Concentrations from cuttings and mud gas logging (including IsoTubes® ) were much lower than from cores, but correlated well. Simulations suggest the lower concentrations from cuttings can be attributed to drilling time, and therefore their use to define gas concentration profiles may have inherent limitations. Calculations based on mud gas logging show the method can provide estimates of core concentrations if operational parameters for the mud gas capture cylinder are quantified. The δ13 C-CH4 measured from mud gas, IsoTubes® , cuttings, and core samples are consistent, exhibiting slight variations that should not alter the implications of the results in identifying the sources of the gases. This study shows core and mud gas techniques and, to a lesser extent, cuttings, can generate high-resolution depth profiles of dissolved hydrocarbon gas concentrations and their isotopes.

Accumulation of Pesticides in Anaerobic Clayey Till‐Controls and Implications for Groundwater

AbstractPesticide residuals after point‐source pesticide spills in clay‐rich aquitards may potentially affect underlying groundwater for many decades due to slow release of accumulated pollution in the clayey matrix material of the aquitard. In this study, we evaluated factors behind different degrees of accumulation of phenoxy acids (MCPP, dichlorprop, 2,4‐D MCPA) and triazines (simazine and terbutylazine) observed in an old pesticide pollution described by Jørgensen et al. (2016a, this issue). By using leaching experiments, it was shown that a zone of maximum concentrations of MCPP and dichlorprop (mg/L) observed by Jørgensen et al. (2016a, this issue) represented accumulated potentially mobile pollution in anaerobic, however largely immobile pore water of the clayey matrix in the upper few meters of the unoxidized aquitard zone. By using sorption experiments, we determined 9 to16 times higher mobility by diffusion and flow for the phenoxy acids (R = 1 to 2) than for the triazines (R = 9 to 16) in the clayey matrix material of the aquitard. This indicated that more rapid and greater accumulation could occur for the phenoxy acids in the clayey matrix than for the triazines. In contrast, the relative mobility of the phenoxy acids and triazines was much closer in sand‐filled fractures and thin sand layers/lamina in the clay, suggesting that the migration of the same compounds along these textural preferential flow paths into the underlying aquifer was less different. Despite that a greater mass had originally been spilled of 2,4‐D and MCPA having similar mobility as the accumulated MCPP and dichlorprop, these compounds were not accumulated in the zone of maximum concentrations. It is suggested that the controls, which initially allowed for the observed separate accumulation of MCPP and dichlorprop as a zone of maximum pollution, were due to the combination of high persistence and high mobility for these specific pesticides in the clayey till matrix material of the aquitard. The investigation showed that over time the initial high concentrations of the accumulated phenoxy acids (MCPP, dichlorprop) transformed into high concentrations of related mobile degradation products (e.g., 4‐CPP and 2‐CPP), which extended the total time of groundwater pollution beyond the disappearance of the original phenoxyacids.

An assessment of Palaeogene and Neogene clay deposits in Denmark as possible host rocks for final disposal of low- and intermediate-level radioactive waste

Abstract In Denmark, mapping and preliminary investigations of Palaeogene and Early Neogene clay deposits have been performed over the past 5 years. The goal was to locate potential host rocks for the final disposal of low- and intermediate-level radioactive waste from the Danish Research Centre Risø, which has to be decommissioned within the next 5–8 years. Five areas with low-permeability Paleocene and Oligocene clay formations, situated in northern Jylland, NE Fyn and southern Lolland, not far from the Baltic coast at Femern Belt, have been suggested. The clay formations are between 75 and 150 m thick, and have large lateral distribution. They are covered by thin layers of glacial clayey tills and the shallow depth to the clay formations is attractive, partly because they are easy to access and partly because there are no groundwater aquifers situated above or below the clay deposits. The paper gives an overall review of the characteristics of the six different clay formations within four of the areas.

Fate of Point‐Source Pesticide Spill in Clayey Till after 15 Years

AbstractThis study investigated the development of pesticide pollution two, three, and 17 years after spills of the herbicides dichlorprop, mecoprop (MCPP), MCPA, 2,4‐D (phenoxy acids), simazine, and terbutylazine (triazines) in a former orchard machinery service yard. The spills had occurred over several decades on a 23‐m thick, mainly anaerobic fractured clayey till aquitard. Angled monitoring wells were installed in the aquitard 3 years after the spills ceased in 1989. In 1993, monitoring revealed that high groundwater concentrations of dichlorprop (677 µg/L) and MCPP (139 µg/L) were accumulated as a zone of maximum pollution in anaerobic and largely immobile pore water at 5 to 6 m depth in the aquitard profile. In contrast, 2,4‐D was determined in only one water sample, and MCPA and simazine and terbutylazine were determined only in low concentrations (below10 µg/L), although these pesticides had been handled at the site in greater amounts than dichlorprop and MCPP according to detailed historic information obtained for the site. Repeated monitoring in the same wells after a further 14 years in 2007 revealed that no identifiable degradation of MCPP had occurred, while dichlorprop had degraded by 75% to 80% (estimated half‐life of approximately 5 years). Furthermore, degradation products related to the phenoxy acids had accumulated, especially 4‐CPP with a maximum concentration of 218 µg/L. In the same zone, MCPA and simazine had almost disappeared. As the pollution was mainly accumulated in largely immobile pore water of the aquitard clayey matrix, and the groundwater recharge was low (30 to 60 mm/year), only minor vertical displacement of the zone with maximum pollution zone had occurred during the 15 years of monitoring. However, concentrations of dichlorprop (0.01 to 0.02 µg/L), MCPP (0.1 to 0.2 µg/L), and 4‐CPP (0.6 to 0.7 µg/L) had spread along textural heterogeneities in the aquitard into the underlying sandy aquifer at 23‐m depth.

Long-term monitoring of nitrate transport to drainage from three agricultural clayey till fields

Abstract. The application of nitrogen (N) fertilisers to crops grown on tile-drained fields is required to sustain most modern crop production, but it poses a risk to the aquatic environment since tile drains facilitate rapid transport pathways with no significant reduction in nitrate. To maintain the water quality of the aquatic environment and the provision of food from highly efficient agriculture in line with the EU's Water Framework Directive and Nitrates Directive, field-scale knowledge is essential for introducing water management actions on-field or off-field and producing an optimal differentiated N-regulation in future. This study strives to provide such knowledge by evaluating on 11 years of nitrate-N concentration measurements in drainage from three subsurface-drained clayey till fields (1.3–2.3 ha) representing approximately 71 % of the surface sediments in Denmark dominated by clay. The fields differ in their inherent hydrogeological field settings (e.g. soil-type, geology, climate, drainage and groundwater table) and the agricultural management of the fields (e.g. crop type, type of N fertilisers and agricultural practices). The evaluation revealed three types of clayey till fields characterised by: (i) low net precipitation, high concentration of nitrate-N, and short-term low intensity drainage at air temperatures often below 5 °C; (ii) medium net precipitation, medium concentration of nitrate-N, and short-term medium-intensity drainage at air temperatures often above 5 °C; and (iii) high net precipitation, low concentration of nitrate-N and long-term high intensity drainage at air temperatures above 5 °C. For each type, on-field water management actions, such as the selection of crop types and introduction of catch crops, appeared relevant, whereas off-field actions only seemed relevant for the latter two field types given the temperature-dependent reduction potential of nitrate off-field. This initial well-documented field-scale knowledge from fields that are representative of large areas in Denmark is a first step towards establishing a differentiated N-regulation for clayey till areas. Additionally, it provides a unique starting point by identifying important parameters for future mapping of catchment-scale variations in nitrate concentrations and fluxes.