Clay Stabilization Research Articles

IMPROVING CLAY SOIL STABILITY WITH THE ADDITION OF RICE HUSKS THROUGH CHEMICAL METHODS

Soil stability is a mixture of soil with a certain material, the aim is to improve the technical properties of the soil so that it can technically meet certain requirements. Soil stability is a mixture of soil and other materials, for the purpose of achieving the correct gradation, so that the technical properties of the soil are better. Chemical stability is the addition of chemical elements to the clay with the addition of other ingredients, namely rice husk ash (ASP), so that a physical change is achieved and a change in the physical properties of the soil occurs, with an increase in the size of the soil load capacity (CBR). This study aims to obtain the appropriate variable for adding rice husk ash to the stability of clay as a stabilizer seen from the unconfined compressive strength test to obtain a capacity value of high load. The research method was carried out by testing the properties of soil index, soil compaction tests (standard proctor) and unconfined compression strength tests (Unconfined Compression Strength) in the laboratory. 200 with variations of 5%, 10% and 15%. Index property tests such as water content tests refer to ASTM D2216:2010, Sieve Analysis (ASTM D-422), Atterberg Limit, Liquid Limit (LL) (ASTM D-4318), and Specific Gravity (Gs) (ASTM D-854). Soil mechanical properties test (proctor standard) (ASTM D 698), free compression resistance test (ASTM D 2166). The conclusive results show that the free compressive strength value increased in the mass without hardening with a 10% husk ash percentage of 1.0005 kg/cm2 and a Cu value of 0.502 kg/cm3. While the results of the free compression strength test with curing for 24 hours, the highest bearing value occurred, in the original soil variation of 1.000 kg/cm3 and a Cu value of 0.500 kg/ cm3. For the value of the free compressive strength, there is a decrease, namely at variations of 5%, 10% and 15% with a time of 24 hours.

Enhanced the permeability of water invasion sandstone by effectively inhibiting the swelling and dispersion of montmorillonite

The long-term effect of protecting water-sensitive reservoirs and enhancing permeability of water invasion reservoir is still an urgent practical problem to be solved. Here, an imidazolium Gemini ionic liquid (IL), PEG-DC8Im, with octyl as tail chain and polyoxyethylene chain as bridging group, was synthesized to inhibit the hydration, swelling and dispersion of clay minerals. The PEG-DC8Im could exert excellent anti-swelling ability (93.82 %) and outstanding washable capacity (cumulative decrease of anti-swelling rate after being washed five times: 1.32 %) at the concentration of 60 mmol/L. The inhibition effect of 20 mmol/L PEG-DC8Im was significantly better than that of 250 mmol/L KCl at 90 °C. And the PEG-DC8Im could intercalate into the interlayer space of MMT through cation exchange to play an inhibition effect, where zeta potential of MMT particles was reduced and then the dispersion ability of MMT was weakened. Subsequently, the anionic polymer poly(AM/AA) was found to cooperate with PEG-DC8Im to improve the inhibition effect for MMT swelling and dispersion, in which poly(AM/AA) was not intercalated into the interlayer of MMT, and only adsorbed on the surface of the particles to encapsulate the MMT particles. Simultaneously, the apparent viscosity and thixotropy of the composite solution were enhanced. Besides, after the treatment of PEG-DC8Im, the displacement pressure decreased and the permeability of sandstone cores increased due to the inhibition of clay mineral hydration, revealing the enhancement of injectivity. Finally, the pore connectivity of the core increased and the water wettability was weakened. The treatment of PEG-DC8Im was conducive to the discharge of invasive water in reservoir and the improvement of the reservoir permeability. Overall, PEG-DC8Im has a good application prospect as permeability-enhancing clay stabilizers.

EFFECT OF NANOPARTICLES ON CLAY STABILITY IN WATER: IMPLICATION FOR WATER BASED DRILLING MUD

Clay stability in water is essential in chemical and manufacturing processes. In water based drilling fluids, montmorillonite dispersed in water is commonly used to maintain fluid density that counter-balances pressure effects from formation layers. However, due to gravity, clay particles settlement at the bottom of holes is inevitable especially if operations in holes are suspended for technical reasons such as during fishing operations and dislodging of stuck pipes. This necessitates the introduction of additives that can enhance dispersion of clay particles in water columns. It has been reported that some nanoparticles can enhance clay stability in water; hence the primary objective in this work is to identify nanoparticles that have potentials to enhance clay stability and nanoparticles that promote clay instability in distilled water and brine of 30 g/l. In the experimental work, clays and different kinds of nanoparticles were dispersed in columns of water and the volumes of settled particles were plotted against time. Experimental results show that nanoparticles of silicon, zirconium, iron, tin, nickel and magnesium oxides all have the capacity to improve clay stability in water, while the presence of Al2O3 and ZnO nanoparticles promote clays instability in water. It is therefore recommended that further research on desirable drilling fluid properties be conducted with nanoparticle oxides that promote clay stability in water to investigate their suitability as additives in water based drilling muds.

Stabilization of a Lateric Clay from Burkina Faso with Cement-Metakaolin for an Application in Road Construction

Stabilization of a Lateric Clay from Burkina Faso with Cement-Metakaolin for an Application in Road Construction

Shear bond and compressive strength of clay stabilised with lime/cement jet grouting and deep mixing: A case of Norvik, Nynäshamn

Abstract The strength of soil can significantly increase by stabilisation with binders. Adding binders in correct proportions to improve soil parameters is of paramount importance for earthworks. In this article, we presented a framework to explore strength characteristics of soil stabilised by several binders and evaluated using applied geophysical methods by estimated P-wave velocities. The core of our work is a systematic assessment of the effects on clay stabilisation from various binders on shear and compressive strength. The binders were combined from four stabilising agents: (i) CEM II/A, a Portland limestone cement; (ii) burnt lime; (iii) lime kiln dust (LKD) limited up to 50%; and (iv) cement kiln dust (CKD). Shear strength has shown a nonlinear dependence as an exponential curve with P-waves. Natural frequency analysis was modelled to simulate resonant frequencies as eigen values. Variations in strength proved that CEM II/A-M (Recipe A, 100% CEM II) has the best performance for weak soil stabilisation followed by the combinations: Recipe B (70% CEM II/A-M, 30% LKD), Recipe C with added 80% CEM II/A-M and 20% CKD, and Recipe D (70% CEM II/A-M 30% CKD). Recipe B has shown high values with maximum uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) at 13.8 MPa. The Recipe C was less effective with the highest value of UCS as 8.8 MPa. The least strength was shown in Recipe D, where UCS has maximal values of 3.7 MPa. The specimens stabilised by Recipe B demonstrated the highest P-wave velocity at 2,350 m/s, while Recipe C and Recipe D showed the highest P-wave velocity at 1,900 and 1,550 m/s. All specimens shown a gain of UCS with sharply increased P-wave speed during the 3 days of curing. The study contributes to the development of methods of soil testing in civil engineering.

Elastoplastic modelling for long-term cyclic stability of soft clays with consideration of structure damage

The constitutive model of structured clays under cyclic loads is helpful to analyze the long-term stability of foundations, such as subgrade under traffic loads and foundation of an offshore gravity platform under wave loads. Responses of structured clays under cyclic loading depend on the applied cyclic stress and can be phenomenally divided into the cyclic stability, cyclic critical state and cyclic degradation. Among these three types, the cyclic stability is directly related to the long-term stability of structured soil foundations. To analyze the cyclic stability of structured soft clay, the constitutive responses under cyclic loads of different amplitudes are firstly discussed according to the shakedown theorem. Secondly, based on the modified Cam-clay model and the plastic hardening rule proposed by Li and Meissner, an elastoplastic two-surface model is herein developed to simulate the long-term responses of saturated structured soft clays under undrained cyclic loading. In the model, a special parameter for describing progressive damage of soil structure is introduced into the interpolation function of plastic modulus, which is related to the accumulated plastic deviatoric strain. The comparisons of theoretical computations with experiment data from some researchers are finally presented to demonstrate the simulation capability of this model. It is shown that the accumulated strain and the pore water pressure of soft clays under long-term undrained cyclic loading have been well simulated. Moreover, the impact of the cyclic stress ratio (CSR) on the cyclic stability is evaluated by using the empirical formula between the model parameters and the CSR. In addition, the method for calibrating the model parameters is also proved to be reasonable and feasible, thus enabling the model parameters to be determined rigorously.

Clay stabilization and recovery of soil functions of a degraded solodic planosol through incorporation of agrominerals: A case study in southern Brazil

This paper describes the performance of addition rates of basaltic breccia and agricultural gypsum on clay stabilization and nutrients release of a solodic Planosol from a degraded borrow area located in Southern Brazil. A leaching experiment was carried out in PVC cylinders filled with 1.5 kg of soil (C horizon), in which two chemical amendments were added in three different proportions: a) basaltic breccia in 7, 14 and 21 Mg ha−1 doses; b) agricultural gypsum in 7, 14 and 21 Mg ha−1 doses; and c) a standard soil, without chemical correction. Distilled water (300 mL) were added every 7 days for 20 weeks and the pH, electrical conductivity, calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium contents and the water-dispersible clay were analyzed in the collected leachates. Gypsum was more efficient than basaltic breccia to promote clay flocculation, even at the lower rate (7 Mg ha−1). The application of basaltic breccia up to 21 Mg ha−1 reduced the amount of nutrients released directly to the soil solution, reducing soil leaching. The application of basaltic breccia at the dosage of 7 Mg ha−1 was able to reduce more than 65% of the water-dispersive clay from the degraded solodic Planosol.

Stabilisation of Malmi soft clay with traditional and low-CO2 binders

Deep soil mixing (DSM), a soil improvement method, is a carbon-intensive activity due to the traditional use of lime and cement as soil binders, which generate large carbon emissions during their production. There is, thus, a growing need for the decarbonisation of infrastructure construction activities, such as DSM, as European cities work towards their carbon-neutrality goals. This paper presents a case study where soft, sensitive postglacial clay from northeast Helsinki is stabilised with the traditional lime-cement (50:50) binder and six alternative low-carbon binders. The low-carbon binders are composed of reduced lime and cement quantities and/or different by-products that include Lime Kiln Dust (LKD), biomass-based fly-ash from bioenergy production, blast furnace slag and the mineral gypsum. The effects of the stabilisation of the alternative binders on the studied clay are evaluated through the results from drained triaxial tests. The lime-cement (50:50) binder is then used as a reference to evaluate the performance of the alternative binders. Additionally, the porosity and porosity distribution of selected stabilised samples were evaluated with the autoradiography technique (AG). Four of the alternative binders showed similar strength levels, at the same confining pressures after 28 days of curing, when compared with the reference binder. Moreover, a higher strength development than the reference binder was observed after 60 days in binders such as the partially LKD-based binder and the gypsum-quicklime-cement mix. Likewise, similar effects of confinement on volumetric behaviour and ductility were exhibited by the binders with comparatively higher strength. Last, results from the AG also showed similarities in terms of porosity and porosity distribution among the stabilised samples with reference and selected low-carbon binders. In general, results show that the inclusion of alternative and side streams material in DSM has the potential to be a more ecological solution with high binding efficiency for soft and sensitive clay improvement.

Study of clay stabilization mechanism and adsorption behavior of organic ammonium salts with low molar weight

Low-permeability sandstone reservoirs with low clay content are prone to water-sensitive damage during the fracturing process. In field applications, serious formation damage occurred with the conventional fracturing fluid system using KCl clay stabilizer. The introduction of SP clay stabilizer into the fracturing fluid formulation system significantly reduced the water-sensitive damage during fracturing and improved the reservoir transformation and production enhancement effect. In this paper, the clay stabilization mechanism of two substances, inorganic clay stabilizer KCl and organic ammonium salts with low molar weight SP, is studied by tests of swelling inhibition, ζ-potential test, and scanning electron microscope test to compare. On this basis, the adsorption behavior of SP on the surface of clay minerals is also studied in depth by isothermal adsorption and desorption experiments to explain mechanistically the difference of two different clay stabilizers on the fracturing effect, which helps to solve the formation damage problem in the fracturing and production enhancement process of low-permeability sandstone reservoirs with low clay content.

Effect of Retrograded Starch Hydrogel on the Hygroscopic and Durability Properties of Clay Composites.

This study is devoted to assessing the hygroscopic and durability properties of a clay composite with the addition of a natural polymer. Modified polymer-retrograded starch hydrogel (RSH) of various concentrations (2.5, 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0%) and heating times (3 and 5 h) were used as clay stabilizers. The introduction of retrograded starch tends to increase the drying rate of clay composites at the early period of 0-4 days without the formation of shrinkage defects. Moisture uptake increased by 29% (from 140 to 180 g/m2) over the control clay composite without RSH. The hysteresis rate of the clay samples modified with RSH decreased by half (from 0.3 to 0.15%), but the hygroscopic properties were better. The use of RSH polymer increased the durability (water erosion resistance) of the clay composite. The obtained composite has great potential for indoor use due to its high moisture-regulating and durability properties.

Investigations and Prevention Strategies on the Fracturing Water Pollution Triggering Permeability and Production Decrease in Underground Gas Reservoirs

The fracturing water injected into the underground gas reservoirs for development purposes has polluted the reservoirs, triggering a decrease in reservoir permeability and gas production. Here, we quantitatively investigate and provide preventions for the fracturing water pollution in the underground gas reservoir. We study the effects of fracturing water pollution on reservoir permeability with core experiments. According to the core experiments, we constructed an area-divided two-phase porous flow model to study the production of the underground gas reservoir considering fracturing water pollution. The simulation results are in good agreement with the field development data. It reveals that in the early, mid-term and late development, respectively, the fracturing water pollution accounts for 88%, 80% and 45% of the decline in permeability and production of the underground gas reservoir. In terms of the prevention of fracturing water pollution, reservoirs with an initial permeability over 0.20 mD are preferably produced by natural energy rather than fracturing. Once using the fracturing water, we suggest applying the propping agent with a large particle radius to reduce the pollution from the solid solute and adding the clay stabilizer and the surfactant to the fracturing water to reduce the pollution from the water solvent.

Biological factors affecting the evolution of safety barrier materials in the Yeniseisky deep geological repository

This article presents information on the microbial impact on the stability of cement, clay and steel engineering safety barriers in a deep geological repository (DGR) for radioactive waste in the gneiss crystal massif at the Yeniseisky test site (Krasnoyarsk region, Russia). Based on microbial diversity data collected from groundwater and bentonite clay core samples in the proposed DGR construction area, the most likely microbial processes are steel corrosion, cement degradation and changes in clay barrier properties. This study establishes the synergistic effect of chemical and microbial processes in engineered barrier materials. An important aspect of engineering barrier safety is clay materials, which are simultaneously a source of microflora, organic matter and elements necessary for microbial development. It should be noted that the microflora of clay materials includes predominantly aerobic organotrophic bacteria introduced during the technical preparation of clays. The rate of microbial processes may increase at elevated temperatures or in contact with hydrogen and iron-containing products of steel corrosion. An initial assessment of the risk of intensification of microbial processes in protective barriers has been carried out; biocidal additives suppressing microbial activity in clay material and Portland cement have been proposed.

Ionic liquids as clay stabilizer additive in fracturing fluid

Swelling clays in hydrocarbon-bearing rocks' mineralogy pose several challenges in developing unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs, including permeability impairment and fracture network retardation. Different clay stabilizers are incorporated in fracturing fluids to help solve this challenge. The effect of clay swelling on the compressive strength of rock was studied using unconfined compression and scratch tests. Also, the tensile strength of rocks exposed to different clay stabilizers was tested using a Brazilian disc test and a breakdown pressure experiment. A medical CT scan of the tested samples was thoroughly studied to inspect the propagation and distribution of the fractures during breakdown pressure experiments. The results revealed that, in comparison to the base scenario, where water was utilized as the fracturing fluid, the clay stabilizers reduced clay swelling and decreased compressive strength. A higher reduction in breakdown pressure and tensile strength was noticed in ionic liquid-based fracturing fluid compared to those treated with tested organic salt. Moreover, the presence and growth of a fracture network were confirmed by medical CT images.

Effect of pore water on the depressurization of gas hydrate in clayey silt sediments

Marine gas hydrate always occurs in clayey silt sediments partially or fully saturated with water. Pore water is involved in gas hydrate formation and decomposition, which plays an important role in gas recovery from hydrate during depressurization. In this work, the depressurization of methane hydrate in the clayey silt sediments was experimentally investigated in a one-dimensional reactor. The variation of gas production and pressure gradient under the gas-rich and water-rich condition were studied. It was found that the gas production in water-rich environment was much lower than that in gas-rich environment as the movement of hydrate dissociating front is slower in water-rich environment. The permeability of the clayey silt sediments was measured before hydrate formation and after hydrate decomposition, which indicated that there was a large depression in the permeability of the clayey silt sediments after hydrate decomposition, which could be attributed to the hydration swelling of clay minerals with the expansion of diffuse double layer caused by the release of water with lower salinity from gas hydrate dissociation. And the permeability depression of the clayey silt sediments caused by hydrate decomposition was more obvious in water-rich environment, reaching up to ∼50%, and increased with the content of clay minerals. In addition, inorganic salt-based clay stabilizer solution was pre-injected into the clayey silt gas hydrate-bearing sediments before depressurization to mitigate the formation damage during gas hydrate production. The results showed the permeability of the sediments pre-saturated with NH4Cl was maintained at ∼75% of the initial values after gas hydrate decomposition as the exchange of Na+ with NH4+ in sediments was proved to decrease the bound water in montmorillonite interlayers by NMR analysis and inhibit the hydration swelling of clay particles.

Laboratory and In Situ Stabilization of Compacted Clay through Granite Waste Powder

The main objective of this study is to investigate the effect of granite waste powder on the behavior of compacted clay soil in both field and laboratory environments. Samples were collected from clay soil exposed at Karak, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The sampled soils contain kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonites. The samples were mixed with various quantities, i.e., 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% by weight of granite waste powder collected from various stone industries in district Mansehra, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. They were then subjected to a variety of geotechnical testing in both the laboratory and the field, following the standard ASTM procedures. The results show that mixing with granite-cutting waste enhances the quality of the soil in both the field and laboratory settings by increasing its bearing capacity (BC), dry density (DD), California-bearing ratio (CBR), unconfined compressive strength (UCS), penetration resistance, and angle of internal friction and by reducing the optimum moisture content, cohesion, porosity, void ratio, and saturation potential. The resulting improvement is mainly due to the stronger, denser, and less hydrophilic character of the constituents of the added rock powders than the raw soil. It is observed that adding 40% granite waste powder produces the best outcome. However, there is a significant difference in the magnitude of the impact on soil quality between the laboratory and field testing. Owing to differences in the testing environment, soil volume, and compaction effort and energy, the amount of improvement is higher in laboratory testing than in field testing.

Durability and Strength of Geopolymer with Recycled Glass Powder Base for Clay Stabilization

Glass powder is one of the solid wastes that is being created at an increasing rate across the globe. Soft clayey soil, on the other hand, generally has to be improved before it can be used in building projects. The durability and strength of clayey soil changed by geopolymer produced with recycled glass powder (RGP) were investigated. The investigation included thawing-freezing (T-F), wet-drying (W-D), and unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests. The curing duration, weight % of employed RGP, and activator (M) concentration were all investigated in this study. Experiments were also carried out on specimens that had been treated with 10% Portland cement for comparison. When comparing geopolymer-modified to Portland cement-modified specimens, UCS measurements revealed a fourfold improvement in compressive strength. The number of durability cycles for the specimen treated with geopolymer (10 cycles) was greater in the T-F experiment than for the specimen changed with 10% Portland cement (9 cycles), indicating that geopolymer with RGP base outperforms Portland cement in locations with frequent thawing-freezing. The cement specimens with 12 cycles durability were more durable in contrast to geopolymer specimens with 6 cycles durability in the W-D test. Geopolymer specimens were more durable against T-F than cement specimens in general.

Cation hydration by confined water and framework-atoms have crucial role on thermodynamics of clay swelling

The swelling capacity and stability of clay play a crucial role in various areas ranging from cosmetics to oil extraction; hence change in their swelling behaviour after cation exchange with the surrounding medium is important for their efficient utilisation. Here we focus on understanding the role of different hydration properties of cation on the thermodynamics of clay swelling by water adsorption. We have used mica as the reference clay, Na^+, Li^+, and H^+ ions as the interstitial cations, and performed grand canonical Monte Carlo simulations of water adsorption in mica pores (of widths d = 4-40 Å). The disjoining pressure (Pi), swelling free energy (Delta Omega ^{ex}), and several structural properties of confined water and ions were calculated to perform a thermodynamic analysis of the system. We expected higher water density in H-mica pores (rho_{ hbox{H}}) due to the smaller size of hbox {H}^+ ions having higher hydration energy. However, the counter-intuitive trend of rho _{hbox{Li}}> rho _{hbox{Na}} > rho_b (bulk density) > rho_{hbox{H}} was observed due to adsorption energy, where the interaction of water with mica framework atoms was also found to be significant. All three mica systems exhibited oscillatory behaviour in the Pi and Delta Omega ^{ex} profiles, diminishing to zero for d ge 11 Å. The Delta Omega ^{ex} for Na-mica is characterised by global minima at d=6 {hbox {AA}} corresponding to crystalline swelling with significant and multiple barriers for crystalline swelling to osmotic swelling (d > 12 Å). A shift in the location of global minima of Delta Omega ^{ex} towards the higher d values and Delta Omega ^{ex} becoming more repulsive is observed in the increasing order of hydration energy of hbox {Na}^+, hbox {Li}^+, and hbox {H}^+ ions. The Delta Omega ^{ex} > 0 for all d in the H-mica system thus favours osmotic swelling. We found that the Na^+ ions hydrate more surface oxygens, act as anchors, and hold the mica pore together (at smaller d), by sharing hydrating water with ions of the opposite side, forming an electrostatically connected mica-Na-water-Na-mica bridge. The Li^+ ions do hydrate surface oxygen atoms, albeit in lesser numbers, and sharing of hydration shell with nearby Li^+ ions is also minimum. Hydration by surface atoms and water sharing, both, are minimum in the H^+ ion case, as they are mostly present in the center of the pore as diffusive ions, thus exerting a consistent osmotic pressure on the mica frameworks, favouring swelling.

Sustainable Application of Wool-Banana Bio-Composite Waste Material in Geotechnical Engineering for Enhancement of Elastoplastic Strain and Resilience of Subgrade Expansive Clays

Agro-biogenic stabilization of expansive subgrade soils is trending to achieve cost-effective and sustainable geotechnical design to resist distress and settlement during the application of heavy traffic loads. This research presents optimized remediation of expansive clay by addition of proportionate quantities of waste renewable wool-banana (WB) fiber composites for the enhancement of elastoplastic strain (ԐEP), peak strength (Sp), resilient modulus (MR) and California bearing ratio (CBR) of expansive clays. Remolded samples of stabilized and nontreated clay prepared at maximum dry density (γdmax) and optimum moisture content (OMC) were subjected to a series of swell potential, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), resilient modulus (MR) and CBR tests to evaluate swell potential, ԐEP, MR, and CBR parameters. The outcome of this study clearly demonstrates that the optimal WB fiber dosage (i.e., 0.6% wool and 1.2% banana fibers of dry weight of clay) lowers the free swell up to 58% and presents an enhancement of 3.5, 2.7, 3.0 and 4.5-times of ԐEPT, Sp, MR and CBR, respectively. Enhancement in ԐEP is vital for the mitigation of excessive cracking in expansive clays for sustainable subgrades. The ratio of strain relating to the peak strength (ԐPS) to the strain relating to the residual strength (ԐRS), i.e., ԐPS/ԐRS = 2.99 which is highest among all fiber-clay blend depicting the highly ductile clay-fiber mixture. Cost-strength analysis reveals the optimized enhancement of ԐEPT, Sp, MR and CBR in comparison with cost using clay plus 0.6% wool plus 1.2% banana fibers blend which depicts the potential application of this research to economize the stabilization of subgrade clay to achieve green and biogeotechnical engineering goals.

Subgrade soil stabilization using marine debris: A literature review

The use of different marine residues found in the great biodiversity of the Peruvian coast, such as crushed mollusk shells or fan shells, can be used as mechanical stabilizers for clay soils due to a change in granulometry. In this article, we reviewed 74 research studies indexed in different databases such as Scopus, Scielo, Ebsco, Proquest, Springer Link, and ScienceDirect, whose publication has not exceeded seven years, with the objective of carrying out a systematic review of the use, effect and influence of marine debris as soil stabilizers. For this purpose, the analyses of the mechanical and also physical properties of such mixtures in different marine debris were reviewed compared to the various types of stabilizers currently used. These evaluated results indicate, that the Pacific razor clam shell offers a lower bearing capacity compared to the fan shell when stabilizing clayey soil. However, the shredded output of both types of marine debris can meet the need for clay subgrade stabilization. Based on the review, it was determined that the addition of different types of shredded marine debris reduces water absorption by capillarity, increasing the resistance and bearing capacity of the soil.

Efficacy of Slag-Based Geopolymer Binder Reinforced with Polypropylene Fibers in the Stabilization of Soft Clays

Efficacy of Slag-Based Geopolymer Binder Reinforced with Polypropylene Fibers in the Stabilization of Soft Clays