Clay Interbeds Research Articles

Spatiotemporal Groundwater Storage Dynamics and Aquifer Mechanical Properties in the Santa Clara Valley Inferred From InSAR Deformation Over 2017–2022

AbstractWe used Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR)‐derived vertical land motion (VLM) timeseries during 2017–2022 to examine the compounding impacts of natural and anthropogenic processes on groundwater dynamics in the Santa Clara Valley (SCV). VLM strongly correlates (>0.75) with groundwater level in both unconfined and confined aquifers. We show that VLM in SCV is mainly driven by groundwater dynamics in deep aquifer layers below 120 m. Our results show that during the most recent drought from March 2019 to November 2021, Santa Clara County subsided up to 30 mm due to groundwater depletion, three times as large as average seasonal amplitude of VLM. Owing to the managed aquifer recharge, the region has been able to avoid unrecoverable land subsidence. We utilize InSAR data to calibrate storage coefficient and lag time related to delayed response of clay interbeds to groundwater level changes, which further serves to estimate groundwater volume loss in confined aquifer units during drought.

A Review of the Evolution Characteristics and Argillization of Clay Interbeds in Rockslides

Weak interlayers in rockslides often become the controlling factor for slope deformation due to their poor physical properties and tendency to undergo argillization. Achieving a comprehensive understanding of the weak interlayers will help us comprehend the mechanism of rock slope failure and protect people’s property. Some weak interlayers will develop into clay interbeds after tectonic activity and long-term groundwater action. A comprehensive review of clay interbeds includes a discussion on the formation conditions, the governing factors of the argillization process, and the investigation methods. The clay minerals in clay interbeds, illite, montmorillonite, and Kaolinite, play a major role in the acceleration of the argillization process. The argillization process can be observed through scanning technology and investigated using nonlinear dynamics, statistics, and numerical modeling methods, which may result in limitations for extracting parameters. It is necessary to conclude a unified evaluation standard to find the basic commonness during the argillization process of clay interbeds. It would be a future trend to establish the quantitative relationships among the mechanical strength, micro-structure and content of clay minerals of the clay interbeds during the argillization process.

Первые радиометрические датировки тонштейнов из угленосных отложений Кузнецкого бассейна: U-Pb-геохронология тайлуганской свиты

Tonsteins, predominantly solid kaolinite clay interbeds, are widespread in the coals of the Kuznetsk Basin and usually contain idiomorphic zircon grains of magmatic origin in quantities suitable for uranium-lead (U-Pb) radiometric dating. For the first time, tonstein zircons from coal seam 78 of the Tailugan Formation (Fm) are dated by two methods: Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) and Chemical Abrasion Isotope-Dilution Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (CA-ID-TIMS). The CA-ID-TIMS datings of 257.0 ± 1.3 Ma and 256.6 ± 0.4 Ma determine the age of the lower boundary of the Tailugan Fm and the Tailuganian Regional Stage at 257.0 Ma. We estimate the duration of the Tailuganian to be around 4.22 million years. The dating results make it possible to directly correlate the Tailuganian of the Kuzbass with the upper half of the Wuchiapingian and with most of the Changhsingian of the International Chronostratigraphic Scale. The accumulation rate of total sediments of the Tailugan Fm, calculated without considering the compaction index, is approximately 0.13–0.18 mm/year, and the rate of coal accumulation is 0.024 mm/year. Such values are comparable to the accumulation rates of the Late Paleozoic coal-bearing strata of the Donetsk Basin and Western Australia. The rate of peat accumulation during the Tailuganian, calculated at a compaction index of 10:1, has been estimated at 0.24 mm/year. This value is comparable to the rates of peat accumulation in the Holocene bogs of the Kuznetsk Alatau in Siberia and the European part of Russia. The presence of tonsteins in the coal seams of the Tailugan Fm suggests that the upper surface of the peat at the time of its accumulation was below the water level, serving as a protective screen for the thin volcanic deposits and preventing its erosion. The assemblages of macroflora, ostracods, conchostracans and bivalves considerably vary through the section of the Tailugan Fm. This variation makes it possible to identify in Kuzbass the stratigraphic level that corresponds to the boundary between the Wuchiapingian and Changhsingian stages in the future.

Depositional Sedimentary Facies, Stratigraphic Control, Paleoecological Constraints, and Paleogeographic Reconstruction of Late Permian Chhidru Formation (Western Salt Range, Pakistan)

The Upper Indus Basin, in Pakistan’s western Salt Range, is home to the Zaluch Gorge. The sedimentary rocks found in this Gorge, belonging to the Chhidru Formation, were studied in terms of sedimentology and stratigraphy, and provide new insights into the basin paleogeographic evolution from the Precambrian to the Jurassic period. Facies analysis in the Chhidru Formation deposits allowed the recognition of three lithofacies (the limestone facies—CF1, the limestone with clay interbeds facies—CF2, and the sandy limestone facies—CF3) with five microfacies types (mudstone biomicrite—MF-1, wackestone-biomicrite—MF-2, wackestone-biosparite—MF-3, pack-stone-biomicrite—MF-4, and packstone-biosparite—MF-5), as well as their depositional characteristics. The identified carbonate and siliciclastic formations display various facies in a shallow marine environment, with different lithologies, sedimentary features, and energy conditions. It is thought that the depositional characteristics of these microfacies are closer to those of the middle to outer shelf. Because of the progressively coarsening outcrop sequence, this formation seems to be at the very top of the high stand system tract (HST). A modified dynamic depositional model of the Chhidru Formation is further built using outcrop data, facies information, and stratigraphy. According to this concept, the formation was deposited in the middle to inner shelf area of the shallow marine environment, during the Late-Permian period. The Permo-Triassic Boundary (PTB), which is the end of the type-1 series, is marked by this formation’s top.

The clays involved in the 1963 Vajont landslide: Genesis and geomechanical implications

The catastrophic Vajont landslide that occurred on 9 October 1963 caused about 2000 deaths when 270–300 Mm3 of rock and debris slid from the northern slope of Mt. Toc into the newly created artificial reservoir, displacing some huge water waves that flooded the nearby villages. The 1963 slide was an en-block remobilisation of a prehistoric rockslide lying on the southern reservoir bank. Basal sliding took place within a complex lithostratigraphic sequence of cherty–marly limestones and clay interbeds belonging to the Fonzaso Formation of Upper Jurassic age. In this work, we investigate the geological origin and provenance of the Vajont clays according to the results of mineralogical and geochemical analyses performed on several clay samples which were collected from the landslide failure surface and the same limestone sequence in the surrounding area. The sampled clayey materials contained variable amounts of clay minerals (36–96%), calcite (4–64%) and quartz (0–6%). The dominant clay minerals were illite/smectite (I/S) mixed layers with a high illite content (85–50%), which was consistent with the high percentage of K2O (1.17–5.77%). The Vajont clays included in the Fonzaso Fm. can be referred to as K-bentonites and can be interpreted as distinct deposits of volcanoclastic materials (tephra), representing the sedimentary inputs of volcanic ashes that interrupted the “normal” calcareous sedimentation during the late Oxfordian–upper Tithonian (158–145 Ma). The soft clay interbeds played a different mechanical role in the occurrence of the prehistoric rockslide and the 1963 en-block remobilisation. When referring to the ancient slope failures, distinct clay-rich layers that were concentrated within some specific lithostratigraphic intervals of the Jurassic cherty limestone sequence caused a localised decrease in the available shear strength, allowing for relative shear displacements along the dip-slope bedding planes. This caused additional shear/tensile fracturing of limestone beds and the formation of a stepped basal failure surface. During the 1963 remobilisation, the clay layers contributed to the average shear strength decrease of the debris material forming the basal shear zone of the slide, but the main triggering factor was the increase in pore pressures caused by the reservoir-induced groundwater inflow.

Mineralogical and Geotechnical Characterization of the Clay Layers within the Basal Shear Zone of the 1963 Vajont Landslide

The 1963 Vajont landslide is a reference example of large rockslides involving clay interbeds emplaced in sedimentary rock masses in correspondence with the basal rupture zone (thinly stratified cherty limestone of the Fonzaso Formation dated to Middle–Upper Jurassic). The basal shear zone of the 1963 Vajont landslide was made up of a chaotic assemblage of displaced rock masses, limestone angular gravel, and spread clay lenses. The mineralogical investigations showed that the clays are characterized by complex assemblages of illite/smectite mixed layers (36–96%) admixed with variable amounts of calcite (4–64%) and quartz (0–6%). The clay layers show highly variable plasticity properties and shear strength characteristics. The samples with a large prevalence of clay mineral content (CM) (CM > 79%) are characterized by low values of the residual friction angle (6.7–14.9°), whereas clay materials characterized by a higher content of granular minerals (calcite and quartz) clearly show greater friction angle values (19.5–26.7°). The high permeability of the limestone angular gravel, which caused a rapid reservoir-induced inflow (1960–1963), together with the low friction angle of the clay layers were responsible for the overall shear strength reduction in correspondence with the basal rupture zone, thus favoring the huge sliding on 9 October 1963.

New, simplified and improved interpretation of the Vaiont landslide mechanics

Both the occurrence and behaviour of the Vaiont landslide have not been satisfactorily explained previously because of difficulties arising from the assumption that the failure surface was ‘chair’ shaped. It is now known that there was no ‘chair’, which means that the 1963 landslide could not have been a reactivated ancient landslide because the residual strength of the clay interbeds would have been insufficient for stability prior to 1963. Furthermore, the moderately translational geometry reduces the influence of reservoir-induced groundwater and hence of submergence. Standard stability analyses now show that prior to 1960, the average shear strength must have significantly exceeded the peak shear strength of the clay interbeds known to have formed the majority of the failure surface. Three-dimensional stability analyses confirm these results and show that at the time of the first significant movements in 1960, the rising reservoir level had a negligible effect on the Factor of Safety. According to these results, the Vaiont landslide was most likely initiated by pore water pressures associated with transient rainfall-induced ‘perched’ groundwater above the clay layers, in combination with a smaller than hitherto assumed effect of reservoir impounding, then developed by brittle crack propagation within the clay beds, thus displaying progressive failure. Further, very heavy rainfall accelerated the process, possibly due to reservoir-induced groundwater impeding drainage of the rainwater, until the limestone beds at the northeast margin failed. With the shear strength suddenly reduced to residual throughout, the entire mass was released and was able to accelerate as observed.

Determination of the Engineering Properties of Submarine Soil Layers in the Bohai Sea Using the Piezocone Penetration Test

Due to the complexity of marine geotechnical engineering, the harsh operating environments, loose subsea soils, and high water contents, it is extremely difficult to obtain soil samples while maintaining the in situ conditions in offshore areas. The engineering properties of submarine soil layers in the Bohai Sea, China, were investigated in this work. The Wison‐APB borehole wireline piezocone penetration test (CPTU) system was used to conduct direct measurements of the cone tip resistance, sleeve friction, and pore pressure. The soil classification and the related soil properties, such as the undrained shear strength, sensitivity and overconsolidation ratio, shear strength profile at the investigation depths, and the single pile foundation bearing capacity, were estimated. Laboratory tests were also conducted in this work. The CPT test results show that there were large differences between the results of the CPT tests (Su) and the laboratory experimental results, which may be due to the compact silt and hard clay interbeds in some layers. The soil classification was determined according to the previous literature. The laboratory test results of the undrained shear strength, clay sensitivity, and the OCR match the CPT test results best when the parameters Nkt, Ns, and k are 15, 6, and 0.3, respectively. The final determination of the ultimate pile capacity depends on the soil’s mechanical properties and the pile type and design. The effects of wave surge and wind loading should also be taken into account in offshore engineering.

Petrography and geochemistry of the Middle Miocene Gebel El Rusas sandstones, Eastern Desert, Egypt: Implications for provenance and tectonic setting

Petrography and bulk rock geochemistry of the Middle Miocene sandstones of the lower and upper members of Gebel El Rusas Formation along the Egyptian Red Sea Coastal plain, have been investigated to determine the provenance, tectonic setting, and weathering condition of this formation. The Lower Member is formed mainly of sandstones and conglomerates with clay interbeds. The Upper Member is more calcareous and formed mainly of sandstones and limestones with marls and clays intercalations. Petrographically, the Lower Member sandstones are mostly immature and classified as arkoses with an average framework composition of \(\hbox {Q}_{66}\hbox {F}_{29}\hbox {R}_{5}\), and the Upper Member sandstones are partly submature (more quartzose, less feldspathic) and classified as subarkoses with an average framework composition of \(\hbox {Q}_{80}\hbox {F}_{17}\hbox {R}_{3}\). The Gebel El Rusas sandstones are enriched in Sr, Ba, Zr and Rb and depleted in Co and U, as compared to UCC. The chemical index of alteration (CIA) values suggest moderate weathering conditions. The geochemistry results revealed that the Gebel El Rusas sandstones were derived from felsic-granitic source rocks and deposited in a passive margin of a synrift basin. The inferred tectonic setting for Middle Miocene Gebel El Rusas sandstones in the study area is consistent with the regional geology of the Eastern Desert of Egypt during Middle Miocene.

The effect of providing details to the model of a geological structure on the assessment of CO₂ storage capacity

Massive emissions of CO2 into the atmosphere are the most direct reason causing global warming and climate change, so more and more countries are starting to focus on carbon abatement technologies. In recent years, the method GCS (Geological Carbon Storage), injecting the CO2 in a supercritical state underground for storage, is considered the most effective way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Saline aquifers are given special attention because of its huge amount of storage and, therefore, a deep saline aquifer is the best choice for the storage of CO2. Exemplified by the well-explored Konary structure in the Polish Lowlands, results of assessments of CO2 storage capacity are compared for three cases: (1) a simplified formula based on averaged geological and reservoir parameters and (2) a model of the structure based on averaged geological and reservoir parameters (homogeneous model) and (3) a model of the structure with more detailed geological data (including those on clay interbeds in the sandstone series of the reservoir horizon – heterogeneous model). This allows the estimation of how providing of details of geological and reservoir data, introduced into the model, can affect the ability of CO2 migration within a reservoir horizon intended for CO2 storage, and, consequently, also obtain a more accurate assessment of the capacity that the structure is capable of attaining.

Biostratygrafia osadów miocenu z otworów wiertniczych Busko (Młyny) PIG-1 i Kazimierza Wielka (Donosy) PIG-1 na podstawie otwornic (północna część zapadliska przedkarpackiego)

FORAMINIFERAL BIOSTRATIGRAPHY OF THE MIOCENE DEPOSITS FROM THE BUSKO (MŁYNY) PIG-1 AND KAZIMIERZA WIELKA (DONOSY) PIG-1 BOREHOLES (NORTHERN PART OF THE CARPATHIAN FOREDEEP) Abstract. Micropaleontological study of Miocene deposits from the Busko (Mlyny) PIG-1 and Kazimierza Wielka (Donosy) PIG-1 boreholes, located in the northern part of the Carpathian Foredeep, has allowed taxonomic and biostratigraphic characteristics of foraminiferal assemblages. The samples were taken from clay and clay-marly interbeds in sub-evaporitic, evaporitic and supra-evaporitc complexes. In the Busko (Mlyny) PIG-1 borehole, five foraminiferal assemblages have been defined (Z.b.I–Z.s.V), corresponding with the following foraminiferal zones: Orbulina suturalis / Praeorbulina – Z.b.I (Moravian substage of the Early Badenian), Neobulimina longa – Z.b.II; Velapertina indigena – Z.b.III, Hanzawaia crassiseptata – Z.b.IV (Kosovian substage of the Late Badenian) and Anomalinoides dividens – Z.b.V (Volhynian substage of the Early Sarmatian). In the Kazimierza Wielka (Donosy) PIG-1 borehole, two foraminiferal assemblages have been identified (Z.b.I and Z.s.II), correlated with following foraminiferal zones Velapertina indigena – Z.b.I (Kosovian substage of the Late Badenian) and Varidentella sarmatica – Z.s.II (Volhynian substage of the Early Sarmatian). The third assemblage (Z.s.III), because of poor preservation of foraminifers has been attributed to the Sarmatian stage in general. Lateral replacement of planktonic and benthonic foraminiferal assemblages confirms a significant facies variability of the Late Badenian deposits that accumulated in the northern margin of marine basin in the Carpathian Foredeep.

Križna jama (SW Slovenia): Numerical-and correlated-ages from cave bear-bearing sediments

Križna jama is a large river cave located between Loško and Cerkniško poljes under Križna gora Mount in southern Slo­venia. It has been known since the mid-19thcentury due to numerous cave bear finds. The cave is filled by complicated sequences of cave fluvial and lacustrine sediments, whichare recently partly eroded. We studied two paleontological exca­vations and profiles in the Medvedji rov to contribute to the solution of dating of bone-bearing lithological horizons. The Križna jama I profile consists of alternation of speleothem lay­ers (flowstone sheets withsmall stalagmites, sometimes within situ cemented Ursus gr. spelaeus bones) and fine-grained silici­clastics often withbones of cave bear. It can be correlated withthe upper part of the Križna jama II profile, but witha slightly less preserved stratigraphic record. Radiocarbon and U-series dates clearly indicate two different ages of cave bear thanato­cenoses in the Križna jama I profile: those above flowstone crusts were dated to ca. 47–45 ka by radiocarbon dating; those included in speleothem layers and clay interbeds are older than 94 ka (U-series date). The details of internal lithology, low thicknesses of layers and the state of bone preservation exclude expected sandwiching of younger layers into eroded/washed spaces among flowstones. Numerical dating excludes re-depo­sition of bear bones from older assemblage to sediments above flowstones. According to the paleomagnetic parameters (pre­vailing normal polarization), the deposition took place within the Brunhes Chron (< 780 ka). There were discovered in total four short-lived reverse excursions of the magnetic field. Ac­cording to U-series data, the upper one (profile I) might be correlated withthe Blake excursion. The lower ones are older than ca 190 ka and can be correlated withsome of the Jamaica-Pringle Falls, Namaku, Calabrian Ridge, Portuguese margin or Calabrian Ridge 1 excursions. Sediments in studied profiles were deposited during the Last Glacial (Weichselian), Eemian interglacial, Saalian glacial and Holsteinian interglacial.

Physical and geotechnical characterization of unconsolidated sediments associated with the 2005 Mbonjo landslide, Limbe, Cameroon

Laboratory analyses of unconsolidated sediments from the ruptured zone of the 2005 Mbonjo Landslide scar were carried out to characterize and evaluate their role as contributory factors in enhancing the slide. Colour, particle size (PS) and particle size distribution (PSD), Atterberg limits [liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL) and plasticity index (PI)] and basic geotechnical properties [bulk density (ρ), dry bulk density (ρd), dry unit weight (γd), moisture content (Mc), specific gravity (Gs), void ratio (e) and porosity (n)] were determined. Colour ranged from reddish brown to yellowish brown. Texturally, samples were classified as loam, silty clay loam and silty clay. Liquid limit ranged from [56 to 74 weight percentage (wt%)], PL (37 to 50 wt%) and PI (15 to 36 wt%). Values for geotechnical properties were ρ (2 to 2.25 g/cm3), ρd (1.75 to 1.95 g/cm3), Mc (14 to 15 wt%), Gs (2.67 to 2.69 g/cm3), e (0.37 to 0.52) and n (0.27 to 0.34). From results of colour, PS and PSD, Atterberg limits and geotechnical analyses, the samples were reflective of clay-rich sediments with high plasticity and sliding potential. Based on the interpretative data, the studied sediments were qualified as landslide prone with clay interbeds serving as the slide surface. Key words: Cameroon volcanic line, clay interbeds, geotechnical properties, ruptured zone, slide surface.

Water percolation through the deep vadose zone and groundwater recharge: Preliminary results based on a new vadose zone monitoring system

A study on water infiltration and groundwater recharge was conducted in the coastal plain, Israel. The study implemented a novel development, flexible time domain reflectometry sensors (FTDR), which enabled the continuous monitoring of water content at selected points through the entire vadose zone. Data on water content variation with time and depth was collected throughout the rainy season of 2004/2005 at two sites. One site was located in a sand dune area with a 21 m thick vadose zone; the other was located in an undeveloped urban area with an 8.4 m thick vadose zone. The lithology of both sites consisted of unconsolidated sand with silt and clay interbeds. The resultant data allowed tracing of the infiltration progress through the entire vadose zone. Each large rain event initiated an infiltration wave that propagated into the vadose zone and pushed the wetting front farther down. The wetting front appeared to progress in a step‐like pattern, controlled by the frequency of large rain events and followed by a slower drainage process. Clay interbeds did not seem to prevent or significantly delay progress of the wetting front down to the groundwater. The apparent wetting front signal reached the groundwater table at 21 m below land surface (bls) only 3 months after the first significant rain event. Groundwater recharge was calculated from the variations in vadose zone water storage. An increase in vadose zone water storage was attributed to an infiltration event, while a reduction in water storage was attributedto a draining process.

Phyllosilicates and zeolite assemblages in the carbonate periplatform of the Great Bahama Bank: origin and relation to diagenetic processes (ODP Leg 166, Sites 1006 and 1007)

The western flank of the Great Bahama Bank, drilled during ODP Leg 166 at seven sites, represents a prograding carbonate sequence from late Oligocene to Holocene [Eberli et al., Proc. ODP Init. Reports 166 (1997)]. The signatures of the detrital input and of diagenetic alteration are evident in clay enriched intervals from the most distal Sites 1006 and 1007 in the Straits of Florida. Mineralogical and chemical investigations (XRD, TEM, SEM, ICP-MS) run on bulk rocks and on the clay fractions enable the origin and evolution of silicate parageneses to be characterized. Plio–Pleistocene silt and clay interbeds contain detrital clay assemblages comprising chlorite, illite, interstratified illite–smectite, smectite, kaolinite and palygorskite. The greater smectite input within late Pliocene units than in Pleistocene oozes may relate either varying source areas or change in paleoclimatic conditions and weathering intensity. The clay intervals from Miocene–upper Oligocene wackestone sections are fairly different, with prevalent smectite in the fine fraction, whose high crystallinity and Mg contents that point towards an authigenic origin. The lower Miocene section, below 1104 mbsf, at depths where compaction features are well developed, is particularly characterized by abundant authigenic Na-K-clinoptilolite filling foraminifer tests. The authigenic smectite and clinoptilolite paragenesis is recorded by the chemical trends, both of the sediment and the interstitial fluid. This diagenetic evolution implies Si- and Mg-rich fluids circulating in deeper and older sequences. For lack of any local volcaniclastic input, the genesis of zeolite and the terms of water–rock interaction are discussed. The location of the diagenetic front correlates with that of the seismic sequence boundary P2 dated as 23.2 Ma. This correspondence may allow the chronostratigraphic significance of some specific seismic reflections to be reassessed.

Modeling Three-Dimensional Deformation in Response to Pumping of Unconsolidated Aquifers

A mathematical model and a corresponding coupled numerical model that incorporate the concepts of three dimensional poroelasticity based on Biot9s consolidation theory are developed for simulating the displacement field of solids within unconsolidated aquifers in response to induced changes in water pressure. The granular displacement model (or GDM) is incorporated into MODFLOW, a U.S. Geological Survey9s finite-difference program, and uses an efficient row-indexed storage mode and biconjugate gradient solver, so that it is tractable at the field scale. The application to three dimensions is an improvement over two-dimensional axisymmetric models incorporating Biot9s equations and over the commonly used one-dimensional subsidence models based on Terzaghi9s method of effective stress. Most subsidence due to ground-water withdrawal occurs in the inelastic range of specific storage within clay interbeds or confining units. However, most horizontal deformation occurs within coarser aquifer units. The GDM program uses both elastic and inelastic storage and Poisson9s ratio as key parameters. Conversion from elastic to inelastic specific storage occurs when the previous maximum volume strain for a particular cell is exceeded. Model outputs are compared with a currently available one-dimensional subsidence model (IBS1) developed for MODFLOW and an axisymmetric finite-element Biot program. The results indicate that under traction free conditions subsidence is a three-dimensional problem and one-dimensional subsidence models tend to focus excessive amounts of vertical deformation near the pumped well. The magnitude of vertical deformation in one-dimensional subsidence models is exacerbated as the grid size becomes smaller in the vicinity of the pumping well. This is due to increased calculated drawdown in the vicinity of the well for more finely-spaced grids.

Neocomian Source and Reservoir Rocks in the Western Brooks Range and Arctic Slope, Alaska: ABSTRACT

Detailed (1:63,360) mapping of the Tingmerkpuk sandstone and associated rocks in the Misheguk Mountain and DeLong Mountains guadrangles of the western Brooks Range thrust belt documents potential hydrocarbon source and reservoir rocks in the northern foothills of the western Delong Mountains and adjacent Colville basin of northwest Alaska. Neocomian (?) to Albian micaceous shale, litharenite, and graywacke that overlies the Tingmerkpuk represents the onset of deposition of orogenic sediments derived from the Brooks Range to the south, and the merging of northern and southern sediment sources in the Colville basin. Both the proximal and distal Tingmerkpuk facies contain clay shale interbeds and overlie the Upper Jurassic to Neocomian Kingak Shale. Preliminary geochemical data show that in the thrust belt, these shales are thermally overmature (Ro 1.4-1.6), but are good source rocks with total organic content (TOC) that ranges from 1.2 to 1.8 percent. Shale in the overlying Brookian rocks is also thermally overmature (Ro 1.2-1.5 percent), but contains up to 1.8 percent TOC from a dominantly terrigenous source, and has generated gas. In outcrops at Surprise Creek, in the foothills north of the thrust belt, the Kingak (1.9 percent TOC) and underlying Triassic Shublik Formation (4.6 percent TOC) are excellentmore » oil source rocks with thermal maturity close to peak oil generation stage (Ro0.75-0.9 percent). These rocks have lower thermal maturity values than expected for their stratigraphic position within the deeper parts of the Colville basin and indicate anomalous burial and uplift history in parts of the basin. Preliminary apatite fission-track (AFTA) data from the thrust belt indicate a stage of rapid uplift and cooling at about 53.61 Ma.« less

Sarmatian aragonite sediments in North-eastern Bulgaria - origin and diagenesis

Unconsolidated aragonite sediments of Bessarabian – Chersonian age (Middle – Late Sarmatian), are established for the first time in the Topola Formation (North-Eastern Bulgaria). The aragonite crystals amount to 85-95% of the rock volume, and are considered as a product of chemical precipitation. The term “aragonitites” is proposed for the unconsolidated aragonite sediments. Aragonitites predominate over the consolidated carbonate rocks (micritic limestones and dolomites) in the studied sections. Clay interbeds are also identified. The deposition of the primary aragonite muds took place in a small shallow bay, opened to the south-southeast, in condition of arid climate. Periodic lithification of a part of the aragonite muds proceeded as a result of neomorphic processes – aragonite transformation to low-magnesian calcite, recrystallization of calcite to coarser one, and further dolomitization. An attempt is made to prove that lithification had place under submarine and brackish conditions.

Regional Seabed Geology and Engineering Considerations for Hibernia and Surrounding Areas

The discovery of oil in the Hibernia region in 1979, and subsequently at the Ben Nevis, Terra Nova, Whiterose and Hebron locations has heightened the demand for information on surficial and subsurface sediments for northeastern Grand Bank. Both gravity-based production facilities and subsea installations require a detailed understanding of the seabed foundation zone and any variations in sedimentary and physical properties of near-surface seabed materials which may affect seabed strength and stability. High resolution single-channel airgun (0.16 l) seismic reflection profiles and information from industry and government boreholes show the near-surface stratigraphy to be dominated by a sequence of shallow, seaward-dipping, parallel reflections which are interpreted to have resulted from progradation and aggradation on the continental shelf. At least locally at the Hibernia site, the upper parallel reflection sequence has complex, internal lenticular reflections and dense interbedded sands, silty-clayey sands and minor gravel and cobbles. Zones of clinoform reflections are interbedded within the sequence. The largest overlies the Hibernia oilfield and is composed of medium to coarse sand with silt and clay interbeds. It is interpreted as a shallow marine progradational sequence, which may have resulted from meltwater deposition of glacially-eroded sediment. Sediment composition and stability within the progradational sequence varies locally and regionally. A regional unconformity near the seabed truncates the progradational and the parallel reflection units and underlies thin surficial sands and gravels that are periodically transported and reworked by bottom currents and scouring icebergs. Four (4) potential seabed constraints to offshore development are described: 1) nearfield sediment transport around seabed installations, 2) liquefaction of seabed foundation sediments as a result of seismic loading, 3) seafloor iceberg scouring, and 4) site-specific and regional geological variability of foundation sediments and their physical properties. Constraints 1–3 can be addressed with appropriate design and proper siting, while 4) needs to be recognized and quantified as seabed strength and composition will vary and therefore impact design and installation of facilities such as wellheads, flowlines and pipelines.

Aquifers in the benin formation (miocene—recent), eastern Niger delta, Nigeria: Lithostratigraphy, hydraulics, and water quality

A regional lithostratigraphic and hydraulic interpretation is presented for the upper 0–300 m of the Benin Formation where groundwater is abstracted in the Rivers State, Nigeria. The aquifers are predominantly sand beds with minor clays, lignite, and conglomerate intercalations. The sands are very fine to coarse grained, subangular to subrounded, poor to fairly well sorted and mostly lithic arenites. A maximum thickness greater than 50 m is developed in places and vertical stacking is common. Most of the conglomerate beds have a matrix support fabric and appear restricted to the east as the lignite beds. An east-west trending belt, about central to the state, seems to contain more clay interbeds. The transmissivity values for the aquifers range from 1.05 × 10−2 to 11.3 × 10−2 m2/sec, while the coefficient of storage varies between 1.07 × 10−4 and 3.53 × 10−4 and specific capacity values lie between 19.01 and 139.8 m3/h/m drawdown. These values suggest that the aquifers have very good capacity to transmit groundwater. The static water level map shows a north-to-south regional groundwater flow pattern except in the northeast (Imo River catchment area) where the flow is northeast to southwest. The groundwater quality is very good and compares favorably with WHO standards for drinking water. However, relatively high iron and chloride values are localized in time and space. Deposition of the aquifer materials is thought to have occurred in alluvial fan, fluvial channel, tidal channel, intertidal flat, beach, and related microenvironments.