Claw Marks Research Articles

Vertebrate Footprints from the Miocene Upper Red Formation, Shokorchi Area, Zanjan Province, NW Iran

Bird, carnivore, and artiodactyl mammal footprints were found in the Miocene Upper Red Formation in the Shokorchi area, west Zanjan, NW Iran. The Upper Red Formation section (about 50 m thick) to the east of Shokorchi village is mainly composed of marls and hard, thin- to thick-bedded sandstone layers. Sinuous ripple marks, mud cracks, and raindrop prints are common on the bedding planes, and flute casts and ripple marks show north-northwest to south-southeast paleocurrent directions. The bird tracks include digitigrade tridactyl footprints without hallux or metatarsus imprints and are assigned to Iranipeda, Antarctichnus and Avipeda isp. These bird tracks were made mainly by charadriiform birds such as sandpipers or snipes and large birds such as cranes. Mammal tracks include carnivore footprints with manus and pes imprints. The manus imprints are better preserved than the pes imprints and are semiplantigrade with five short digits. Digit V is clearly distinct from digits I-IV. The tips of manus digit traces are rounded without claw marks. The pes imprints are poorly preserved as a rounded or oval shape with no digit imprints and only one or two depressions in the mid to front parts of pes imprints. It seems that these footprints belonged to a carnivore in which the forefeet supported most of the animal's weight. These imprints determined as Platykopus ilycalcator and were made by large ursid. Artiodactyl footprints vary from wedge to rounded rectangular or heart shaped. Digits III and IV imprints are distinct with interungual ridges in the median or posterior region. The artiodactyl footprints are Pecoripeda (Gazellipeda) gazella, and because of the high density of tracks, distinguishing pes and manus imprints are impossible. These may have been made by a herd of artiodactyls that traversed a broad area.

Thermal paper can replace typewriter correction paper in Emlen funnels

Emlen funnels are small funnel-shaped orientation cagesused to record the spontaneously directed migratory rest-lessness (Zugunruhe) of night-migratory songbirds (Emlenand Emlen 1966). Today, almost every group studying thecompass orientation capabilities of migratory songbirdsuses the Emlen funnel method (e.g., Sandberg et al. 2002;Wiltschko and Wiltschko 2003; Ritz et al. 2004; Muheimet al. 2006; Chernetsov et al. 2008). This method providesthe most reliable and cost effective tool to analyze thespontaneous directional preference of many migratorysongbirds during the migratory season. Results from Emlenfunnel experiments also play a key role in the current rushtowards understanding how the magnetic compass sense inmigratory songbirds works (e.g., Ritz et al. 2004; Mouritsenand Ritz 2005).When Emlen first invented the method (Emlen andEmlen 1966), he used an inkpad at the bottom of the cageand lined the walls of the funnel with blotting paper toscore the ink marks as a measure of the bird’s directionalchoice. Later, Rabol (1979) got the idea to use typewritercorrection paper on the walls instead of ink and blottingpaper to record the birds’ directional preferences. This wasa significant improvement for the birds, since ‘‘Rotkehl-chen’’ (Robin Erithacus rubecula) would no longer become‘‘Blaukehlchen’’ (Bluethroat Luscinia svecica) after severalnights hopping on the inkpad. The refined typewriter cor-rection paper version of the Emlen funnel was adopted byvirtually every study using Emlen funnels after 1980 (e.g.,Mouritsen and Larsen 1998; Sandberg et al. 2002;Wiltschko and Wiltschko 2003; Ritz et al. 2004; Muheimet al. 2006). However, over the last 10 years, researchersusing the Emlen funnel method have been challengedby the disappearance of typewriters, which has made itexceedingly difficult to find a reliable supplier of appro-priately sized rolls of typewriter correction paper needed todo Emlen funnel experiments.The Wiltschko-lab in Frankfurt (e.g., Wiltschko andWiltschko 2003; Ritz et al. 2004) were instrumental inconvincing one of the producers of typewriter correctionpaper to make a final production run, which helped manycolleagues stock up on paper for several years. Unfortu-nately, the chalk-like coating on typewriter correctionpaper tends to harden with time, which means that itbecomes more and more difficult to accurately scorescratches on the paper. In addition to this problem, ourstock ran out several years ago, which made us initiate asearch for an alternative solution, as going back to the inkmethod would not be acceptable for animal welfarereasons.First, we visited the local crime unit to see if fingerprintdetection dust could help us. It did not work because itsfunction is based on the fat on the fingers which the duststicks to. But the claws of birds are normally fat free andthus claw marks cannot be visualized with fingerprintdetection dust. Second, we got the idea that maybe thepaper used in trucks to record their speed (tachopgraphcharts, ‘‘Fahrtenschreiberpapier’’ in German) could also beused to record the scratches left in Emlen funnels bymigratory birds. As a result, we tested various such papersfrom several different producers with variable success untilwe received a sample of ‘‘Thermal paper’’ product number‘‘SC55’’ from the company ‘‘Blumberg Systempapiere’’,Kalkumerstrasse 46, 40885 Ratingen-Lintorf, Germany;

Are There Andean Bears in Panamá

We present the results of a 2007 survey for Andean bears (Tremarctos ornatus) at Serranía de Pirre, Panamá. We surveyed game trails using methodology developed by the Andean Bear Program of the Wildlife Conservation Society. We searched a total of 14 km along 3 trails and found 4 trees with claw marks resembling Andean bear activity signs. No other bear activity signs were found. The type and encounter rate of activity signs found at Serranía de Pirre indicate either a very sporadic and brief presence of Andean bears in the area or the absence of Andean bears and the misidentification of the claw marks as bear signs. We conclude that there is no resident population of Andean bears at the Serranía de Pirre and probably at the adjacent southernmost Serranía de Jingurudo. The only other mountain range biogeographically related with the Andes with reports of Andean bear presence in Panamá is the northernmost Serranía del Darién. Serranía del Darién should be surveyed to confirm the status of Andean bears in Panamá.

Distinguishing Asiatic Black Bears and Sun Bears by Claw Marks on Climbed Trees

Abstract: Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) and sun bears (Helarctos malayanus) are sympatric in mainland Southeast Asia and face similar threats of habitat loss and commercial poaching. They are rarely seen but leave distinct signs, especially claw marks on climbed trees. These markings, which are potentially valuable indicators of presence, population status, and behavior of black bears and sun bears, have limited usefulness if the 2 species cannot be differentiated. We measured 121 claw mark imprints on climbed trees from 43 known (mainly captive) individual black bears and sun bears of both sexes in Thailand and Cambodia. The span across the markings made by 3, 4, or 5 claws from the hind foot was significantly greater for black bears than sun bears. We developed discriminant function models with these variables and arranged them in a 3‐step process that distinguished claw marks as either sun bear, black bear, or indeterminate. This procedure correctly classified 95% of claw marks from the experimental animals. Tested on wild bears (at sites where only one species occurred), the procedure correctly classified 91% of claw marks of black bears in China (n = 94) and 100% of claw marks of sun bears in Indonesia (n = 32). The main limitation of the method was in distinguishing young, small black bears (cubs and yearlings) from sun bears. Nevertheless, application of these findings will be valuable in bear research and monitoring programs throughout Southeast Asia, where sign surveys have, until now, been hampered by the inability to differentiate these 2 ecologically and behaviorally similar species. (JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT 72(3):814–821; 2008)

Fruit phenology of Prunus jamasakura and the feeding habit of the Asiatic black bear as a seed disperser

AbstractWe investigated the relationship between the fruit phenology of Prunus jamasakura and the fruit‐feeding period of the Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus). The purposes of this study were to determine (1) when bears feed on the fruit of P. jamasakura in relation to phenology; (2) whether ingestion damages seeds; and (3) how ingestion influences seed germination. We assessed the relationship between the phenology of fruit maturation (size, sugar concentration, color, persistence, and germination percentage) and the feeding period of bears in the field, as judged from bear shelves and claw marks. We also compared the germination percentage of seeds ingested by captive bears with that of uningested. Bears fed on the fruit from days 50 to 66 after flowering, when most of the fruits were on the tree and became large, the germination percentage of seeds increased, and the sugar concentration became high. Bears fed only on mature fruits and so obtained high‐quality nutrients. Germination tests showed that ingestion of fruits by the bears caused no physical damage to the seeds. Ingested seeds did not show a significant difference in germination percentage from seeds, whose pulp was artificially removed. These results indicate that bears are potentially effective dispersers from a qualitative perspective and, to some extent, from a quantitative perspective.

Using sign at power poles to document presence of bears in Greece

The endangered brown bear (Ursus arctos) population in Greece is in urgent need of effective protection and management; that management should be based on information that is both reliable and quickly attained. After observing bears marking and rubbing on power poles, we initiated a study to collect information on this behavior and develop an effective method for documenting bear presence in Greece. Thirty-nine power poles in the main study area were fitted with barbed wire and inspected monthly for a year. The information and experience gained in the main study area was used to survey 3 additional areas, covering a representative sample of the species distribution in the country. Power pole-related behaviors were associated with mud smears, hair deposits, and bite and claw marks (hereafter referred to as marks). Tracks and scats also have been used to document the presence of brown bears in Greece, but fewer of these were found in all areas surveyed. Deterioration rate of marks was slower than that of tracks and scats. Our results suggest that power pole-related behavior is not a localized phenomenon. A monitoring scheme in Greece documenting the presence of the species that would include the regular inspection of power poles could take advantage of the higher abundance and slower deterioration rate of power pole-related signs and be time efficient and easily staffed by volunteers. The ability to identify individual bears through genetic analysis of hair collected from power poles is an additional advantage of this approach.

Simulated weathering of dinosaur tracks and the implications for their characterization

Digital models of the tracks of bipedal theropod and ornithopod dinosaurs, and the quadrupedal tracks of a sauropod, were computationally eroded to investigate the effects of erosion on the shapes, sizes, and diagnostic details of fossil tracks. Narrow and (or) angular details, such as claw marks, interdigital ridges, and internal ridges, are removed early in erosion, creating the potential for misidentification of eroded theropod tracks as those of ornithopods. However, with the erosion models presented here, all tracks retain their basic shapes as indicated by the relative constancy of their interdigital angles and by the relative constancy of their footlength:footwidth ratios. Surface lengths of tracks did not increase significantly with erosion, so that dinosaurian hip height and speed estimates derived from trackways would not be greatly in error if based on eroded surface tracks. Synthetic undertracks from the surface tracks were also produced using information from published physical models of track formation. The differences between a weathered surface track and a freshly exposed, simulated undertrack are sufficient so that the two model tracks would not be confused. Large, rounded tracks are much better at retaining their characteristics than small, angular tracks, with the implication that large tracks may be over-represented in the fossil record, but they may be more reliably attributed to the appropriate trackmaker. This would bias estimates of dinosaur taxonomic diversity and body size ranges based on trackway evidence.

Burrows of a gopher-like rodent, possibly Gregorymys (Geomyoidea: Geomyidae: Entoptychtinae), from the early Miocene Harrison Formation, Nebraska

This study describes the architectural and surface morphology of small, 5.6−6.7 cm diameter burrows that occur in close proximity to the Daemonelix burrows of palaeocastorin beavers in the early Miocene upper Harrison Formation, Nebraska. The small-diameter burrows are sinuous and rambling or weakly helical in morphology. Distinctive paired grooves from rodent incisors, measuring 4.1−4.3 mm wide, occur on the ceiling and sides of the burrows, whereas ridge-like claw marks of 4.1 mm width occur low on walls and floors. Scratched-out, chamber-like areas on the sides of tunnel shafts are covered on all sides with claw marks, whereas tooth marks are mostly confined to main tunnel shafts. Both types of marks are abundant, indicating a mixed tooth-and-claw digging strategy that appears to have evolved in palaeocastorin beavers as well. Similar digging methods in two unrelated Harrison rodents indicates the relative hardness of the volcanic ash-rich soils, which necessitated digging with teeth in addition to less resistant keratin claws. The new ichnotaxon Alezichnos trogodont is erected to describe these ichnofossils. A possible excavator is Gregorymys sp., an extinct, gopher-like entoptychine rodent that occurs in these and correlative Miocene units in the Great Plains. The width of Gregorymys incisors matches the width of incisor marks on A. trogodont. These burrows may represent the first recorded evidence of subterranean habitat and digging behavior in an otherwise common fossil rodent. The excavator of A. trogodont had a different burrow system, and possibly different foraging behavior, than the contemporaneous beavers, providing new evidence for diversity in a subterranean Miocene ecosystem.

Actuopalaeontological trackway experiments withIguana on intertidal flat carbonates of the Arabian Gulf — a comparison to fossilRhynchosauroides tracks of Triassic carbonate tidal flat megatracksites in the European Germanic Basin

In the recent carbonate tidal flats of the lower to upper intertidal zone of the Khor Al Qirqishan Bay western of Abu Dhabi at the southern Arabian Gulf actuopaleontological trackway experiments with the lizardIguana were made. The different moving activities such as basking, slow walk or running over dry to wet biolaminate surfaces and swimming or walking activities through ponds and tide channels have left a variety of quadruped track preservations.Iguana has produced trackways on nearly dry microbial mats of the upper intertidal only with claw marks. On slightly wet substrates detailed imprints of the subdigital lamellae were produced, while in wet mud a medium impressed imprint type without subdigital structures was typical. On very wet mud scratch marks were left by the long claws combined with medium impressed imprints. In about 25 cm deep intertidal channels or pondsIguana began to swim and touched the ground. In less deep water the lacertid left swimming and subaquatic walk scratch marks. In slow move the tail produced a more or less straight deep impression and the pes was printed behind the manus. By running activities the pelvic girdle was uplifted, the tail did not touch the ground and the pes was printed besides the manus. Astonishing is the identical track preservation of the fossil European Triassic trackways on biolaminates. The experiment results are very similar to the fossil record with the very abundant Lower to Middle Triassic track genusRhynchosauroides in the southern margin of the Germanic Basin with its ancient carbonate tidal flat megatracksites. With the study of the recent lower or upper intertidal environments in the Arabian Gulf fossil footprints can be positioned in the palaeoenvironments of the old tidal flats, tidal ponds or channels. Also the biolaminate consistence of the fossil Middle Triassic carbonate tidal flats and moving activity zones of the most possible trackmakerMacrocnemus, a fossil Middle Triassic prolacertilian of Europe, can be reconstructed. These old reptiles must have lived primary in the carbonate tidal flats, especially searching for food in the lower intertidal, where they left the highest density of their trackways in the entire surrounding Germanic Basin coastline about 240 Mio. years ago under the same subtropical arid conditions as in the recent Ana logon, the southern Arabian Gulf.

A new ichnotaxon of fossil bird track from the Early Cretaceous Tianjialou Formation (Barremian-Albian), Shandong Province, China

A single set of 5 bird tracks was discovered in the Tianjialou Formation (Barremian-Albian) of Junan County, Shandong Province, China. After careful study we infer that it is a new type of bird tracks, and a new ichnogenus was erected and the name Shandongornipes was given. The characteristics of the new bird track are as follows: Moderately large tetradactyl footprints with well-developed hallux impression. Track width (about 5.8 cm) almost equal to track length (excluding hallux); total length of track (including hallux) 8.7 cm. The digit impressions are slender, with distal ends showing long sharp claw marks. Hallux posteriorly-directed, and hallux impressions well-developed. Digits II, III and IV point anteriorly, exhibiting mesaxonic asymmetry: divarication angle between II and III much larger than that of III and IV, the former ranging from 91° to 118°, and the latter less than 30°. Divarication between digits II and IV ranging from 128° to 142°. Without web structures. Digital pads recognizable, usually at least three in digits III and IV, but sometimes only two due to preservation. The trackway shows slight positive (inward) rotation of feet. The bird tracks occur in association with abundant dinosaur tracks, and are believed to have formed in flood plain environments.

Andean bear use of the epiphytic bromeliad Tillandsia fendleri at Quebrada el Molino, Venezuela

Epiphytic bromeliads of the genus Tillandsia have been reported as important in the Andean (spectacled) bear diet throughout the bear’s distribution (Mondolfi 1971, 1989; Peyton 1980; Jorgenson and Rodriguez 1986; Rodriguez et al. 1986; Suarez 1989; Goldstein 1990, Rodriguez 1991; Eulert 1995). Epiphytic bromeliads are locally abundant in Andean forests (Gentry and Dodson 1987). Because they are high in soluble carbohydrates, fat, and protein, bromeliads are a nutritious food for bears (Goldstein 1990). Bears often leave sign of their activities in areas where they live; trails, scats, broken branches, claw marks on trees, and beds are common in bear habitats (Burst and Pelton 1983). Andean bears are no exception, leaving abundant sign especially while feeding on epiphytic and terrestrial bromeliads (Peyton 1980, Suarez 1989). In Venezuela, sign of feeding on epiphytic bromeliads by Andean bears has been found in mountain forests between 1,680 and 3,200 m and were the most abundant bear sign found in forests from 2,400 to 2,800 m (Goldstein 1990). Spectacled bears usually produce 2 types of signs at epiphytic bromeliad feeding sites: claw marks on tree bark and piles of bromeliad leaves on the forest floor. Claw marks are visible on tree bark from 40–60 cm above the ground to the branches where the bear fed on the bromeliads. The length and depth of the scars depends on the bark of the tree species. Bears feed on the basal meristematic part of the bromeliads, causing the leaves to drop to the forest floor. Bears have been found to eat 1–10 or more plants at each tree, and Tillandsia fendleri plants have around 50 leaves. Depending on the number of bromeliads eaten, leaves can form a conspicuous carpet on the forest floor. Moreover, usually the central bunch of younger leaves stick together, with bite marks on the white basal meristematic part (Goldstein 1990). Although there are several species of epiphytic bromeliads Tillandsia available in forests between 2,400–3,000 m at Quebrada El Molino (T. compacta, T. complanata, T. tetrantha, T. spiculosa), Andean bears at Quebrada El Molino have been found to only eat the largest species, T. fendleri. They also feed on the fruit of a Lauraceae tree (Beilschmiedia sulcata). In paramo areas, bears feed on the terrestrial bromeliad Puya aristeguietae (Goldstein 1990). T. fendleri plants can reach 2 m in height (including the single central erect inflorescence) and 1 m in diameter (Smith 1971), making them very conspicuous and easily distinguished from smaller Tillandsia species. During work at Quebrada El Molino (Goldstein 1990, 2002), I found that Andean bear T. fendleri feeding sites were mostly located in tall, emergent trees with large canopies and in large trees at the forest–paramo edge, where the abundance of T. fendleri plants was higher (bromeliads/tree x 1⁄4 16.95 [SD 1⁄4 10.89]; diameter at breast height [dbh] x1⁄4 51.84 cm [SD 1⁄4 22.80 cm]; tree height x 1⁄4 10.03 m [SD 1⁄4 3.10]; n 1⁄4 51). Because climbing is energetically costly and the distribution and abundance of bromeliads is clumped, I predicted that Andean bears would maximize expected reward for the effort of climbing trees with T. fendleri, preferentially using trees with the greatest bromeliad loads.

Early Triassic therapsid footprints from the Sydney Basin, Australia

A large rock slab collected in 1913 from the roof of the Bellambi Colliery in the southern Sydney Basin bears fossil tracks that are now known from recent radiometric and chemostratigraphic dating to be earliest Triassic, rather than latest Permian, in age. The tracks show two distinctive features of reptiles: scale impressions and claw marks. Both manus and pes are pentadactyl, ectaxonic, semidigitigrade and have an outer interdigital angle (digits IV–V) greater than inner interdigital angles. Digit proportions are consistent with a phalangeal formula of 23333. The fossil tracks are referred to the ichnospecies Dicynodontipus bellambiensis sp. nov. They are similar to the kinds of tracks thought to be produced by Lystrosaurus species. Given the abundance of these species in Early Triassic faunas of low diversity and the occurrence of members of the Lystrosaurus fauna in Queensland and Antarctica, chances are good that this is indeed a trackway of Lystrosaurus. If considered to be made by an animal of that type, the trackway was produced using the primitive alternate gait, rather than the mammalian amble, by an animal about 84 cm long and some 22 cm high. Preservation of bones of these creatures would not be expected given the non-calcareous nature of associated fossil soils in the Sydney Basin Triassic. Herbaceous lycopods, locally common in these and other Early Triassic strata worldwide, are among the most likely foods of these tusked, low-browsing herbivores.

Importance of Queen Bumble Bees as Pollinators Facilitating Inter‐morph Crossing inPrimula sieboldii

AbstractFlower‐visiting insects, the distribution of pollen on an insect's body, and fruit and seed sets ofPrimula sieboldiiE. Morren were investigated in a maritime deciduous forest habitat of the Hidaka region in Hokkaido. Queens ofBombus diversus tersatusSmith (Hymenoptera: Apidae),Bombus schrencki albidopleuralisSkorikov, andBombus deuteronymus deuteronymusSchulz were observed to visit the flowers of the species. Bumblebee claw marks were found on the flower petals of 68% of the flowering ramets of the species. Scanning‐electronmicroscopy revealed that pin and thrum pollens ofP. sieboldiiwere deposited in different positions along the proboscis of aB. diversus tersatusqueen (n=38400 grains). On the glossa, all the observed pollen was of the pin type, while more than half of the pollen grains observed on the upper part of the proboscis, galea, stipes, and maxillary palpus were of the thrum type. In the field, high fruit and seed sets were recorded for both pin and thrum morphs, indicating the occurrence of sufficient legitimate pollination during the flowering season. In addition to the effectiveness of queen bumblebees as pollinators forP. sieboldiisuggested in this study, phenological and morphological matches, i.e., early spring flowering during the queen bee emergence season and the similar lengths of the corolla tube and the bee proboscis, also support the inference that queen bumble bees play an important role in legitimate pollination ofP. sieboldii.

Reptile trackway from the Lee Formation (Lower Pennsylvanian) of south-central Kentucky

An Early Pennsylvanian tetrapod trackway, referred to Notalacerta missouriensis Butts, was found in the Rockcastle Sandstone Member (Westphalian A, Upper Carboniferous) of the Lee Formation in McCreary County, Kentucky. Terrestrial characteristics of the trackway, such as digit length, claw marks, gait, and tail drag, suggest that it was made by a member of the primitive reptile family Protorothyrididae. If identified correctly, this is the oldest known reptile trackway in North America. The animal that made the trackway was approximately 0.4 m in length. The pes tracks are slightly larger and set slightly wider than the manus tracks; digits are elongated and slender, and the fourth digit of the pes is the longest. Whereas the slender, long toes indicate a terrestrial form, the gait was more advanced than the sprawling gait typical of the most primitive tetrapods.

Notes on the Cave Fauna of Indiana

Research Article| December 01 1958 Notes on the Cave Fauna of Indiana Russell E. Mumford Russell E. Mumford Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar The American Biology Teacher (1958) 20 (8): 285–288. https://doi.org/10.2307/4439040 Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Share Icon Share Twitter LinkedIn Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Cite Icon Cite Search Site Citation Russell E. Mumford; Notes on the Cave Fauna of Indiana. The American Biology Teacher 1 December 1958; 20 (8): 285–288. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/4439040 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu nav search search input Search input auto suggest search filter All ContentThe American Biology Teacher Search This content is only available via PDF. Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.

Geology and Palaeontology

Previous articleNext article FreeGeneral NotesGeology and PalaeontologyPDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by The American Naturalist Volume 16, Number 6Jun., 1882 Published for The American Society of Naturalists Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/273114 Views: 40 Citations: 2Citations are reported from Crossref PDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Samuel D. Arman, Gavin J. Prideaux Behaviour of the Pleistocene marsupial lion deduced from claw marks in a southwestern Australian cave, Scientific Reports 6, no.11 (Feb 2016).https://doi.org/10.1038/srep21372CHRISTOPHER NEDIN The dietary niche of the extinct Australian marsupial lion: Thylacoleo carnifex Owen, Lethaia 24, no.11 (Jan 1991): 115–118.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1502-3931.1991.tb01184.x