Classroom Reading Instruction Research Articles

How do structured pedagogy programmes affect reading instruction in African early grade classrooms?

‘Structured pedagogy programmes’ (SPP) have recently become a dominant approach in interventions across low and medium-income countries (LMICs) to address the so-called ‘reading crisis’. SPPs entail a range of interventions including reading materials, lesson plans and teacher support aimed at changing instructional practice. This paper considers the impact of SPPs on pedagogy. As part of evaluations of the Literacy Achievement and Retention Activity (LARA) and the Read Liberia programmes, observations of 188 early grade reading lessons in Uganda and Liberia were conducted between 2017 and 2022. These included programme (treatment) classrooms and comparator (control) lessons. Both programmes aimed to improve the reading abilities of early grade learners through the training and coaching of teachers and the provision of materials, including daily scripted teacher guides. The article considers the intended curriculum of the two programmes and analyses the differences between treatment classrooms implementing the programmes, and control classrooms. The paper argues that while the ‘what’ of the SPPs (the textual base and curriculum content) is clearly defined and impacts pedagogy to some extent, the ‘how’, or interactive aspects of the pedagogy are diffuse in programme intensions and show little impact on instructional practice. The distinction between the what and the how of pedagogy highlights the need for a more developed theory of pedagogy underlying SPPs. Further, the analysis draws attention to the sociocultural aspect of pedagogy in shaping instruction, arguing for experimentation in contextually-sensitive pedagogies that work more with the grain of teachers’ local, existing practices.

The Effects of Shadow-Reading on EFL Learners’ Reading Comprehension

The current study investigates the effects of shadow-reading on the development of the reading comprehension of undergraduate students who studied English at Ajloun University College/ Al-Balqa Applied University. The researchers randomly selected 100 EFL learners from the Department of English Language at Ajloun University College who enrolled in the reading course in the first semester2021/2022. The students were first and second-year students aged 18-22. The sample of the study was divided equally into experimental and control groups. The control group was exposed only to regular classroom reading instruction, while the experimental group received shadow-reading instruction. The researchers conducted a posttest to find out if there were significant differences between both groups. The results indicated that shadow-reading affected reading comprehension positively. It is found that shadow-reading is more effective than other traditional methods in teaching reading comprehension. The current study presents several recommendations for language learners, researchers, teachers, and syllabus designers.

Differentiated Reading Instruction: Teacher Beliefs and Strategies

With an increasingly diverse student population in the classroom, it is imperative that teachers feel confident about their ability to teach reading to children who have varied reading proficiency to read. This study has explored in-service teacher beliefs on learner differences in reading instruction in school classrooms that instigated teacher strategies in meeting learner needs. Data were collected from classroom observation and interviews from two experienced teachers. Transcripts and field notes were coded and analyzed thematically. The result indicated that the teachers had high expectations for their students, however, they lacked sufficient skills to differentiate reading instruction to address the needs of students on a regular basis. Classroom instruction was mostly dominated by lecture methods and the materials and activities were limited to textbooks. The teachers saw reading differences as a classroom reality, recognized students reading differences in the classroom, and felt the need to grow every learning potential in reading. Some of the teaching strategies that aligned with differentiated reading instruction were: flexible grouping, library lesson and choice in reading, differentiated support, multisensory presentation of lessons, extension activities for high achieving readers, activating background knowledge and making connection, peer tutoring, exploratory activities, curriculum compacting, ongoing assessment and feedback, differentiated questioning, differentiated assignment, repeated instruction, and using technology.

Academic and Behavior Combined Support: Evaluation of an integrated supplemental intervention for early elementary students

In current multi-tier models, students who are not responsive to universal instruction receive supplementary support. Despite most students having co-occurring academic and behavior challenges, their needs are often addressed through separate academic or behavior interventions. This approach may not only be costly for schools, but it also fails to acknowledge the well-documented link between behavior and academic performance. The purpose of this study was to evaluate Academic and Behavior Combined Support (ABC Support), a newly developed supplemental intervention that merges a combined focus on reading fluency and engagement. Six teachers implemented the intervention for 6–8 weeks with Grade 2 students. Students' oral fluency on standard and training reading passages and occurrence of engagement and disruptive behaviors during classroom reading instruction were measured repeatedly across baseline and intervention phases in a multiple-baseline design. Visual and statistical analyses revealed significant improvement from baseline to intervention for both reading and behavior outcomes. Post-intervention surveys and interviews revealed a high level of acceptability among teachers and students. Theoretical and empirical contributions as well as practice implications are addressed.

Fostering Independence While Teaching Students With or at Risk for Reading Disabilities

The Gradual Release of Responsibility (GRR) model for instructional delivery is well supported by research evidence and is often identified as a critical element of instruction for students with learning difficulties. However, there are challenges associated with effectively releasing responsibility to students. This may be especially true during instruction for primary-grade students with or at risk for learning disabilities. In general, educators want to provide a high level of support to young, struggling students in order to ensure that they feel successful and bolster their confidence. However, too much support means that students are not provided with opportunities for independent practice or independent mastery of content being taught. This article describes the GRR model of instruction and provides specific guidance and resources to support special education teachers in implementing the GRR model during small-group reading instruction in primary-grade classrooms, with a particular emphasis on facilitating group and independent practice.

Targeted Reading Instruction: Four Guiding Principles

AbstractThis article describes four key principles from Targeted Reading Instruction (TRI, formerly called Targeted Reading Intervention), an evidence‐based early reading intervention and professional development program. Focused on accelerating the growth of students not yet meeting grade‐level expectations, one‐on‐one 15‐minute daily TRI lessons engage students in developing phonemic awareness, phonics knowledge, decoding, fluency, vocabulary, and beginning reading comprehension. Four key principles guide TRI, which can be applied to classroom reading instruction. First, all work is done in the context of real words and connected text, placing meaning at the heart of instruction. Second, lessons keep it moving, as they follow a consistent structure, use activities to achieve multiple objectives, and make use of all available resources. Third, TRI teachers let the student do the work, engaging students in productive struggle. Fourth, explicit teaching of skills such as blending provides students with unique strategies to become confident independent readers.

Poverty, Parent Involvement, and Children’s Reading Skills: Testing the Compensatory Effect of the Amount of Classroom Reading Instruction

ABSTRACT Research Findings: Parent involvement is a critical way for children to learn about the importance of education and develop reading skills. Unfortunately, not all low-income parents are able to be involved in their children’s education, which can have negative implications for children’s reading development. The present study tested if the strength of the relation between low-income parents’ involvement and children’s reading skills in first grade varied by the amount of classroom reading instruction that children received at school. This study used data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Kindergarten: 2010–2011 (ECLS-K: 2011) to examine the relations between low-income parent involvement in education, amount of classroom reading instruction, and first-grade children’s reading skills. Parent involvement was significantly more impactful for children who received less than 2 hours of classroom reading instruction. Additionally, children from poor households scored lower, on average, on reading assessments than children from near-poor households. Practice or Policy: Parent involvement has a positive impact on children’s reading skills, but that impact can be contingent on what occurs within the classroom. This study underscores the need to consider both home and school influences on children’s reading skills. Implications for educational practice and policy are discussed.

Effectiveness of an Occupational Therapy Reading Program for Low Socioeconomic First and Second Graders in an Urban Elementary School: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Study

ABSTRACT Objective We assessed the effectiveness of an occupational therapy reading program that targeted foundational reading skills and reading participation for first and second graders in an underserved urban elementary school. Method: Eleven intervention group participants received the 10-week reading program based on the incorporation of self-generated learning strategies and sensorimotor experiences. Both intervention group and 10 control group participants received traditional classroom reading instruction based on pencil and paper exercises. Results: Statistically significant differences with large effect sizes were found between intervention and control group post-intervention scores on the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (Z = -3.553, p < .000, d = 1.826) and Dolch Sight Word List scales (Z = -3.052, p < .002, d = 1.256). No statistically significant differences were found at posttest between intervention and control group scores on the Benchmark Assessment System and Test of Word Reading Efficiency. Questionnaire data demonstrated that intervention group participants displayed greater reading enjoyment, increased home reading participation, improved home literacy routines, and greater agency as readers, compared to the control group. Conclusion: Preliminary evidence was demonstrated for the effectiveness of the reading program in the study sample with regard to foundational reading skills and participation.

Closing the gap: supporting literacy through a computer‐assisted‐reading‐intervention

AbstractSchools in England are expected to ‘close the gap’ for a range of vulnerable pupils who are achieving below the levels seen amongst their same‐aged peers. They are also highly accountable for additional funding that is provided to support this goal. The project reported here involved collating and analysing a range of data in order to evaluate the impact of a widely used computer‐assisted‐reading‐intervention (CARI). Sixteen primary school pupils, all of whom were identified by their school as underachieving in literacy, used the CARI daily over a five‐week period. The post‐intervention data showed some clear gains in reading and spelling skills for all bar one of the children. The findings are discussed in relation to the wider literatures on CARIs. The research concludes that the CARI under investigation offers a useful and cost‐effective adjunct to whole‐class and group reading instruction and may be particularly beneficial for supporting the learning of pupils who are struggling to consolidate the knowledge and skills covered in their regular classroom reading instruction.

Intensifying Reading Instruction for Students With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Practices to Support Classroom Instruction and Family–School Collaboration

Many students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) also have reading deficits. These reading deficiencies in students with ADHD are likely to be more severe than those of students with only reading difficulties. To intensify reading instruction to improve reading and behavioral outcomes for students with ADHD, this article describes research-based practices which can be integrated into the classroom reading instruction as well as foster family–school collaboration.

Barriers to the implementation of specialized reading instruction in secondary co-taught classrooms: an exploratory study

ABSTRACTThis exploratory research underscores Bandura’s social learning theory on collective agency to investigate co-teaching partners’ collaboration regarding reading instruction for students with disabilities. Students whose Individualized Education Programs stipulate reading are dependent on special educators to deliver such instruction. In the current research, we investigate barriers to implementation of specialized reading instruction in co-taught classes. One hundred seven secondary special education co-teachers across the United States, who primarily teach students with learning disabilities, responded to a questionnaire about their co-teaching experiences and delivery of specialized reading instruction. Emphasizing the impact that co-planning has on barriers to the implementation of reading, our results indicate the moderating role of special educators’ perceived co-teaching benefits. Empirical findings are discussed, and implications for research and practice are offered.

Kindergartener’s meaning making with multimodal app books: The relations amongst reader characteristics, app book characteristics, and comprehension outcomes

App books are increasingly being used in classrooms and at home. However, little is known how children effectively make meaning with these. Given that app books substantially differ from print or CD ROM books, research specifically on the meaning making process with app books is needed. Grounded in transactional reading and new literacies theories, this observational study examined the relations amongst reader characteristics, app book characteristics, and comprehension outcomes. Fifty-three children in four kindergarten classrooms across two states were individually observed reading a different app book on an iPad six times across the school year and asked questions to elicit their comprehension. Sessions were video-recorded and coded by two coders with high inter-rater reliability. A multivariate outcome, multilevel cross-classification, mixed response analysis showed that specific reader characteristics and transactions between reader and text were linked to better comprehension outcomes. These findings can guide app book reading instruction in early childhood classrooms.

The effect of shadow reading and collaborative strategic reading on EFL learners’ reading comprehension across two proficiency levels

ABSTRACTReading comprehension is a key skill that can influence the learning outcome and further language development. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of two types of reading interventions, Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) and Shadow Reading (SHR), on EFL learners’ reading comprehension across two proficiency levels. To this end, the researcher selected three intact elementary classes and three intact intermediate classes and randomly assigned them as one control and two experimental groups at each proficiency level. A pre-test of reading comprehension taken from the reading section of KET, for elementary learners (n = 72), and a pre-test of reading comprehension taken from the reading section of PET, for intermediate learners (n = 72) was administered to assess their initial performance in reading comprehension. Then, the experimental groups recieved one of the intended treatments, SHR or CSR, for ten sessions, while the control group received only regular classroom reading instruction. Finally, the learners were given a post-test of reading comprehension to measure their reading skill. The findings of two-way ANOVA revealed that there was a significant main effect for reading intervention. Moreover, there was neither a significant main effect for proficiency level nor a significant interaction effect of reading intervention and proficiency. The results of Tukey post-hoc test indicated that CSR group surpassed the other two groups and SHR group outperformed the control group. The implications are discussed in terms of the efficacy of CSR and SHR in enhancing EFL learners’ reading comprehension.

Using Peer Assisted Learning Strategies for Boys, Aboriginal Learners, and At-Risk Populations

ABSTRACTThis study reports on one school district’s attempt to address reading gaps in boys, Aboriginal students, and special education students at 1st grade by implementing Peer Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS) to supplement classroom reading instruction. Findings indicate that compared to previous years, when PALS was not used, students in this study made significantly greater gains in reading scores. Boys made similar gains to girls, Aboriginal students made similar gains to non-Aboriginal students, and at-risk students closed the achievement gap slightly with their typically achieving peers. For students who did not make adequate progress in reading throughout the year, the data indicate that the best predictor of at-risk status by the end of 1st grade was not a student’s sex or Aboriginal status but the ease with which he or she could effortlessly identify the sounds of letters and read words on entering the 1st grade.

Two for One: Using QAR to Increase Reading Comprehension and Improve Test Scores

AbstractThis teaching tip describes an intervention used in a third‐grade classroom implemented to help students pass an end‐of‐grade reading comprehension test. Low scores on a practice end‐of‐grade comprehension test prompted a re‐examination of classroom reading instruction and a plan for intervention. This teaching tip describes the phases implemented over an eight‐week period to add the Question Answer Relationship (QAR) strategy to students’ reader's toolboxes to increase comprehension and improve test scores. Most student scores on end‐of‐grade test increased after this intervention, which supports the use of QAR to improve test scores while furthering literacy development.

Educational Policy and Literacy Instruction

This article explores the relationship between federal and state educational policymaking and classroom reading instruction. The past 50 years of federal literacy education policy is summarized, particularly emphasizing the connections of these policies to reading curriculum and classroom assessment. The paper concludes with a discussion of the coordinated state efforts to reshape literacy curriculum including the Common Core State Standards.

Behavioral Attention: A Longitudinal Study of Whether and How It Influences the Development of Word Reading and Reading Comprehension Among At-Risk Readers

The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which teacher ratings of behavioral attention predicted responsiveness to word reading instruction in first-grade and third-grade reading comprehension performance. Participants were 110 first-grade students identified as at risk for reading difficulties who received 20 weeks of intensive reading intervention in combination with classroom reading instruction. Path analysis indicated that teacher ratings of student attention significantly predicted students’ word reading growth in first grade even when they were competed against other relevant predictors (phonological awareness, nonword reading, sight word efficiency, vocabulary, listening comprehension, hyperactivity, nonverbal reasoning, and short-term memory). Also, student attention demonstrated a significant indirect effect on third-grade reading comprehension via word reading but not via listening comprehension. Results suggest that student attention (indexed by teacher ratings) is an important predictor of at-risk readers’ responsiveness to reading instruction in first grade and that first-grade reading growth mediates the relationship between students’ attention and their future level of reading comprehension. The importance of considering ways to manage and improve behavioral attention when implementing reading instruction is discussed.

Building Word Knowledge: Opportunities for Direct Vocabulary Instruction in General Education for Students With Reading Difficulties

Direct vocabulary instruction is 1 critical component of reading instruction. Although most students in the elementary grades need to continue building their vocabulary knowledge, students with reading difficulties are at the greatest risk of falling further behind each year in vocabulary and concept knowledge without effective instruction. This study examined the amount and type of direct vocabulary instruction available for students with reading difficulties during core classroom reading instruction and supplemental reading interventions. Fourteen 2nd-grade classroom and reading intervention teachers serving students with reading difficulties in 3 elementary schools in 3 states participated in the study. Results suggested that about 8% of core classroom reading instruction was devoted to direct vocabulary instruction with a focus on word definitions and providing examples of word meaning. Minimal amounts of direct vocabulary instruction occurred in supplemental reading interventions. Thus, students with reading difficulties had limited opportunities through core reading instruction and supplemental reading interventions to receive research-based, effective vocabulary instruction.

Effects of Tier 3 Intervention for Students With Persistent Reading Difficulties and Characteristics of Inadequate Responders.

This article describes a randomized controlled trial conducted to evaluate the effects of an intensive, individualized, Tier 3 reading intervention for second grade students who had previously experienced inadequate response to quality first grade classroom reading instruction (Tier 1) and supplemental small-group intervention (Tier 2). Also evaluated were cognitive characteristics of students with inadequate response to intensive Tier 3 intervention. Students were randomized to receive the research intervention (N = 47) or the instruction and intervention typically provided in their schools (N = 25). Results indicated that students who received the research intervention made significantly better growth than those who received typical school instruction on measures of word identification, phonemic decoding, and word reading fluency and on a measure of sentence- and paragraph-level reading comprehension. Treatment effects were smaller and not statistically significant on phonemic decoding efficiency, text reading fluency, and reading comprehension in extended text. Effect sizes for all outcomes except oral reading fluency met criteria for substantive importance; however, many of the students in the intervention continued to struggle. An evaluation of cognitive profiles of adequate and inadequate responders was consistent with a continuum of severity (as opposed to qualitative differences), showing greater language and reading impairment prior to the intervention in students who were inadequate responders.

Butterfly effects in reading? The relationship between decoding and comprehension in Grade 6 high poverty schools

Using the metaphor of butterfly effects, this paper considers how literacy inequalities in comprehension performance amongst Grade 6 learners in high poverty schools can be linked to skills that should have been developed in earlier stages of reading development. The reading comprehension skills of Grade 6 learners in the home language, NorthernSotho, and in English in two disadvantaged primary schools were assessed over a 2-year period, using large group pen-and-paper tests. A smaller sample of learners were then also tested individually for decoding skills each year to see if decoding competence could shed light on the comprehension levels and differential reading effects amongst learners. Strong correlations were found between three measures of decoding skilland reading comprehension. Oral reading fluency emerged as a strong predictor of comprehension. The pedagogical implications of these findings for early reading instruction in South African classrooms are briefly discussed.Key words: Grade 6 reading, decoding, comprehension, academic literacy, high poverty schools