Forest Site Classification Research Articles

An ecological land classification approach to modeling the production of forest biomass

Forest site classification is a prerequisite to successful integrated forest resources planning and management. Traditionally,site classification has emphasized a phytocentric approach, with tools such as the site index having a rich and longhistory in forest site evaluation. The concept of site index was primarily devised to assess site productivity of an even-aged,single-species stand. Site index has been the primary method of forest site evaluation in support of management for traditionalforest products. However, this method of site classification has been criticized as the needs, perspectives andsocial values of the public regarding forest management have changed the emphasis from timber production to multiplevalueforestry practices. There are alternative approaches to forest site classification that have the potential to meet thegrowing demands placed on forest information for inventory and modeling purposes. Ecological Land Classification(ELC), is a phytogeocentric approach that stratifies the landscape into ecologically meaningful units (ecosites) based onsubstrate characteristics, moisture regime and canopy composition. This approach offers a more holistic view of site productivityevaluation; however, until recently it has been difficult to acquire data to support widespread mapping ofecosites. Remote sensing technology along with predictive modeling and interpretive mapping techniques make the applicationof an ecosite-based approach at the forest landscape level possible. As forest management moves towards the considerationof a broader set of resources (e.g., woody biomass), there is an opportunity to develop new tools for linking forestproductivity to the sustainable production of forest bioproducts with forest ecosites as a solid foundation forsegmenting the landscape. Key words: forest site classification, site index, site productivity, Ecological Land Classification (ELC), ecosites, forest biomass,bioproducts

A stratification of the South African forestry landscape based on climatic parameters

The benefits of high-resolution forest site classification systems have been widely acknowledged in South Africa as a prerequisite for decision-making in forestry management. Although substantial research and development work have been done on categorising and mapping the soil and geological environment, surprisingly little has been done to improve our understanding of the role of climate in plantation ecology and to incorporate climatic variables into spatial databases. A stratification of the forest landscape of South Africa is proposed, using growth days and growth temperature as primary variables. The appropriateness of these variables is discussed in terms of its relation to plant physiology and landscape ecology. The provinces of KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga are used as a case study for demonstration purposes. A total of nine growth day classes and 17 growth temperature classes were identified. An analysis of variance illustrated a significant difference between all classes in terms of related factors expressing moisture and temperature regimes, indicating the relevance of growth days and growth temperature for identifying areas of homogenous climatic conditions. The covariation between growth days and growth temperature and factors expressing moisture and temperature, respectively, also indicates the usefulness of these variables for landscape stratification in complex biophysical environments such as South Africa. The application potential of this stratification system is discussed in terms of its value as a resource inventory, as well as for species choice, site quality prediction, growth modelling, site ecology analysis and various aspects of risk management in plantations. It is proposed that this system be regarded as a first step towards a more holistic multifactor national forest site classification system.

SUBREGIONS AND SITE SECTION GROUPS ON BEYŞEHİR WATERSHED

West and sought parts of Beysehir Lake is called Dedegul mountains subregion. The other parts are called Sultan mountains subregion. Dedegul mountains subregion is affected by north and east wind coming from Beysehir Lake. Therefore, Dedegul mountains subregion is more humid climate than Sultan mountains supregion. The subregions come into being from site section groups which has different climate properties. Dedegul mountains subregions was discriminated to Gedikli Site Section Groups, Dumanli Site Section Groups and Gencek Site Section Groups. Sultan mountains subregions was discriminated to Doganbey Site Section Groups, Cariksaraylar Site Section Groups and Orenkoy Site Section Groups. The section groups were discriminated to altitude belts which has different climate properties. Subsections being present at the altitude bents were discriminated according to landform and main rocks characters. Crimean juniper (Juniperus exelsa), Crimean pine (Pinus nigra), Cupper oak (Quercus cerris), Taurus cedar (Cedrus libani), Cilician fir (Abies cilicica) has the most widespread distribution in Beysehir watershed. The climate is not important influencing the distribution of Crimean juniper which has widespread distribution on the soils come into being from limestone. Crimean pine is not prefer with low altitude, but it has widespread with the soils come into being from schistes. Cupper oak is prefer to the soils come into being from schistes and ophiolite. Lebanon cedar and Cilician fir have generally more widespread with the altitudes between 1400 m and 1900 m and sink–hole. Keywords: Beysehir watershed, Forest site classification, Crimean juniper, Cupper oak, Crimean pine, Taurus cedar.

Comparing methods for determining forest sites: a case study in Gümüşhane-Karanlıkdere forest

Forest site classification has long been a problem for managers of Turkish forests. Forest management decisions and land use planning involving afforestation activities and silvicultural prescriptions are based on sound site information to formulate appropriate actions on the ground. In Turkey, two methods of forest site productivity are used; direct and indirect method. Indirect methods are usually reserved for practical applications as they are relatively simple, yet provide less accurate estimation of the real productivity. In this study direct, indirect and remote sensing (RS) methods were used to distinguish and map forest sites of Karanlikdere Forest District in Gumushane, Turkey. One hundred and twenty-two sample plots were established with 300 m × 300 m grids in summer of 2003. In each sample plot, soil samples and the classical timber inventory measurements were taken. According to direct method, water-air economy method is preferred due to a water deficiency in the study area. Four different forest site classes; very dry, dry, moderate fresh and fresh were determined and mapped with geographic information system (GIS). In indirect method, the guiding curve was used to generate anamorphic site indexes (SI) of three classes; good (SI = I and II), medium (SI = III) and poor (SI = IV and V). Furthermore, forest sites were estimated with Landsat 7 ETM (2000) data using supervised classification with a 0.843 kappa statistic value and 88% accuracy assessments. Some important differences between the methods were discovered. The indirect method indicate that site indices I and II are 298.5 ha, III 254.3 ha and IV and V 347.7 ha. In contrast, direct method related to very dry site of 107.7 ha, dry site of 484.6 ha, moderate fresh site of 304.7 ha and fresh site of 246.3 ha. Satellite image indicate that very dry site covers 291.2 ha, dry site 239.2 ha, moderate fresh site 287.4 and fresh site 325.5 ha. Approximately 242.8 ha area (open and degraded areas) were not determined by indirect method but were captured with RS method. The statistical analyses (ANOVA) showed no statistically significant (F = 0.720, p = 0.543) relationship between indirect method and direct method-RS method indicating clearly that indirect method is not an adequate measurement of forest site productivity. Forest sites, particularly in open and degraded areas should be determined with direct method.

Forest site classification using Landsat 7 ETM data: A case study of Maçka-Ormanüstü forest, Turkey

Aforestation activities, silvicultural prescription, forest management decisions and land use planning are based on site information to develop appropriate actions for implementation. Forest site classification has been one of the major problems of Turkish forestry for long time. Both direct and indirect methods can be used to determine forest site productivity. Indirect methods are usually reserved for practical applications as they are relatively simple, yet provide less accurate site estimation. However, direct method is highly time-demanding, expensive and hard to conduct, necessitating the use of information technologies such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS). This study, first of all, generated a forest site map using both direct and indirect methods based on ground measurements in 567.2 ha sample area. Then, supervised classification was conducted on Landsat 7 ETM image using forest site map generated from direct method as ground measurements to generate site map. The classification resulted in moist site of 262.5 ha, very moist site of 122.5 ha and highly moist site of 191.2 ha in direct method; sites I-II cover 38.9 ha, III 289.6 ha, IV-V 143.5 ha and treeless-degraded areas of 104.2 ha in indirect method; moist site of 203.5 ha, very moist site of 232.1 ha and highly moist site of 140.6 ha in remote sensing method. However, 104.2 ha treeless and degraded areas were not determined by indirect method, yet by the other methods. Secondly, forest site map for the whole area (5,980.8 ha) was generated based on the site map generated by the direct method for sampled area. The Landsat 7 ETM image was classified based on the forest site map of sample area. The site index (SI) map for the whole area was generated using conventional inventory measurements. The classification resulted in sites I-II cover 134.1 ha, III 1,643.6 ha, IV-V 1,396.5 ha, treeless-degraded areas of 1,097.3 ha and settlement-agriculture areas of 1,709.3 ha in indirect method; moist site of 1,674.3 ha, very moist site of 853.6 ha, highly moist site of 1,729.6 ha and settlement-agriculture areas 1,723.3 ha in remote sensing method. Again the treeless- degraded areas of 1,097.3 ha were not determined by indirect method but by remote sensing method.

Forest site classification of forest ecosystems in Bohemian Karst (Czech Republic)

The study focuses on selected forest site units on water uninfluenced sites on limestone in Bohemian Karst. The species composition of phytocoenoses, their potential production and soil properties were assessed. Studied forest site complexes are correctly determined and they provide important information from the aspect of planning and practical nature conservation management. It is necessary to specify the criteria of categoria calcaria in detail, since it is often difficult to distinguish it from categoria mesotrophica. Water retention capacity of soils, a criterion often neglected so far, presents a useful view of forest site water budget and it is a suitable criterion in forest site classification.

Forest site classification and evaluation: a South African perspective

The current South African forest resource is managed through intensive silviculture of fast-growing exotic species. Increased intensity in managed practices in a forestry environment that is characterised by diversity in growing conditions, will require reliable decision support tools that facilitate informed decision making. This paper highlights the conceptual approach of forest site classification, the development of site evaluation models, and the formulation of management systems and policies. The multi-factor, hierarchical approach to site classification used in South Africa is discussed against an international perspective, and possible future directions are highlighted. A review is provided on the outcome of site-growth studies undertaken in South Africa, and the importance of development towards process-based models is indicated. The highly variable, site-specific response found with fertiliser trials is outlined, and the importance of site-classification systems in formulating nutrient management policies is also highlighted. The status of growth and yield modelling in South Africa is briefly discussed, including the crucial role of site-classification systems in developing site-specific growth models. The development of a policy regarding sustainable forest management is a priority, and the importance of spatial site information in this venture is discussed. The integration of the three different concepts; site classification, site evaluation and management systems, into a common platform for decision making, is proposed. Together with geographic information technology, these integrated components can form the essential elements to a forest management decision support system.

A multivariate analysis of breeding bird species of western and central Canadian boreal forests: Stand and spatial effects

We examined the abundance and distribution of 80 bird species in 101 breeding bird census plots collated from a wide range of sources in the boreal forest of western Canada. In order to examine the relative importance of stand attributes and geographical location we used Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). Two-way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN) identified seven stand groups ranging from young stands to mature mixed woods to spruce-dominated stands and finally wet sites. CCA demonstrated that hardwood and softwood composition of stands, amount of jackpine, stand age, upland versus wetland classification, and geographic location of stands explained significant variation in bird species composition and abundance. Using partial CCA analysis, we partitioned out the total variation in the species matrix as follows: i) non-spatial environmental variation: 24%; ii) spatially structured environmental variation: 3%; iii) spatial species variation that is not shared by the environmental variables: 14%; and iv) unexplained variation and stochastic fluctuations: 59%. Stand variables explained 27% of the variation in the species matrix; however, the geographical component explained only one ninth of this variation. Thus, while geographical location contributed significantly to variation in the species matrix, its overall effect was small. Our results suggest that for several boreal forest birds, useful habitat or stand association models can be based on existing forest inventory and ecosystem site classification data.

Forest research in Finland

Summary The article outlines progress in Finnish forest research since Lauri Ilvessalo presented his review in 1927. Some fields of research which already possessed a firm basis 70 years ago are still found to be important. A number of studies had proved the suitability of Cajander's system of forest types for forest site classification; later research has mainly confirmed the validity of its use in Finnish conditions. The National Forest Inventory first carried out in the early 1920s has resulted in a continuous monitoring of forest resources. Data are now available for a wide range of forest and environmental applications. Research has also been an essential tool in helping Finnish forestry to meet new challenges. For example, the drainage of peatland forests and improved silviculture have resulted in great increase in forest production, while advances in forest technology have made efficient and environmentally friendly timber harvesting possible in new and sometimes difficult circumstances.

A cooperative, integrated project to classify forest sites in Newfoundland

Most existing systems of forest site classification attempt to combine vegetation, soil, terrain, geology, climatic and hydrologic factors. The current paper describes an ongoing project to assess the relationship of these factors to forest site capability in Newfoundland. Through the description and classification of forest inventory plots, this project is providing productivity data for species, descriptions of vegetational succession, growth and yield projections, as well as an indication of soil type variation within Forest Management Districts.The cooperative, multi-agency approach employed in this project has benefited all parties concerned, and has resulted in a mix of expertise and focus of resources that would not be possible within one agency. A large and valuable bank of vegetation, soil and site data is being acquired. Elements of the project include: 1) establishment of permanent forest inventory sample plots, in Management Districts throughout the province; 2) training of forest inventory crews so that they recognize forest vegetation, accurately prepare soil descriptions and undertake soil sampling; 3) laboratory analyses of soil samples for chemical and physical parameters, and integration of these results into the forest site classification; and, 4) formal reporting of the forest site classification, including improved descriptions of Damman Forest Site Types (FSTs) and soils.

Canonical correspondence analysis for forest site classification. A case study

L'analyse canonique des correspondances (ACC) est une methode exploratoire d'analyse des donnees qui peut etre appliquee a l'etude des relations entre le milieu et la vegetation ou pour elaborer une typologie des stations forestieres. Cet article illustre, sur un exemple, quelques avantages de l'ACC sur d'autres methodes classiques - l'analyse factorielle des correspondances d'un tableau phytosociologique, les profils ecologiques : i) l'ACC est une methode globale adaptee a l'etude des relations entre un grand nombre d'especes et plusieurs variables ecologiques ; il) elle permet d'analyser l'influence des gradients ecologiques (exemple : alimentation en eau et niveau trophique) sur la distribution des especes tout en eliminant des effets parasites (exemple : degre de maturation des peuplements) ; iii) elle permet de selectionner les variables ecologiques pertinentes en vue de la typologie des stations ; iv) elle fournit des indices synthetiques sur l'optimum et l'amplitude ecologiques des especes, indices qui peuvent ensuite etre utilises pour apprecier leur caractere indicateur.

Forestry Research Priorities in Canada, 1992: An Overview for the Canadian Council of Forest Ministers

This fourth annual overview of Canadian forest research priorities has been compiled by the Forestry Research Advisory Council of Canada (FRACC) for the Canadian Council of Forest Ministers. It is based on the top five priorities for forest research as identified by the provincial forest research advisory bodies.The topics from each group were scored on a scale of 5 points for top priority down to 1 point for lowest priority. The resulting 10 forest research topics are presented here in descending order of priority:• Integrated resource management and decision support.• Pest and weed management and alternatives to chemicals.• Environmental effects of forest management.• Ecological knowledge for intensive forest management.• Forest growth and yield data.• Increased productivity, tree improvement, and regeneration.• Forest inventory and site classification.• Silviculture and harvesting methods, and cost reduction.• Forest fire management and control.• Mixedwood management.Research on wood processing and development of new products was also recognized as important, but it is not the primary focus of FRACC and hence was not rated. Modern information handling systems, artificial intelligence, and biotechnology were also judged important, but these are research tools rather than forest research topics and were not rated.The evolution of priorities over the four years of reporting was examined. A strict comparison was not possible because the methods of the first two reports differed from those of the last two. However, it was possible to assign a general priority rating (high, medium, etc.) for the earlier years for the priority topics identified in this current report.No dramatic shifts were detected. "Integrated resource management and decision support" remains high priority. It is significant that three subjects, all bearing on the environment, have moved up in priority and are now rated 2, 3, and 4. These topics are "Pest and weed management and alternatives to chemicals"; "Environmental effects of forest management"; and "Ecological knowledge for intensive forest management.'' "Silviculture and harvesting methods, and cost reduction" has also moved up whereas two topics, "Forest growth and yield data" and "Higher productivity, tree improvement, and regeneration" have moved down. Other items have not changed appreciably. Research priorities do not seem to be changing faster than research agencies can adapt to them.Twelve issues that are likely to affect future research priorities were identified as follows:• Concern and input about sustainable forestry and the environment.• Managing non-timber values and a shrinking timber land base.• Global trade, competition, and world public opinion.• Under-funding and phase-out of federal-provincial agreements.• Accuracy of forest models for sustainable forestry.• Lack of data on the socio-economic values of forests.• Land claims and forestry on aboriginal lands.• Intensive management of the boreal mixedwood forest.• Economics of secondary forest products industry.• Increasing need for accurate information at all levels.• New provincial policies on forestry and forest protection.• Farm forestry for wood and shelterbelts.Research funding varies greatly across the country. Funds provided through the federal-provincial agreements are vital everywhere. Under-funded subjects are listed below; they are ranked by the ratio on the right, which represents the number of jurisdictions that classified the topic as under-funded over the number that identified it as a priority.Pest and weed management and alternatives to chemicals 4/7Environmental effects of forest management 3/6Ecological knowledge for intensive forest management 2/4Forest growth and yield data 2/4Forest fire management and control 2/4Integrated resource management and decision support 4/10Forest inventory and site classification 1/3Silviculture and harvesting methods, and cost reduction 1/3Increased productivity, tree improvement, and regeneration 1/5Mixedwood management 0/1Forestry research in Canada is considered well focused on requirements, but improvement is needed in the local application of research results.

User information needs for forest management site classification in Manitoba

Forest inventory in Manitoba reveals that considerable forest harvest expansion is possible because of present underutilization. Although underutilization does occur in some forest sections, Manitoba's 20-year forest management plan predicts shortages of softwood in currently utilized sections before the end of this decade. Better forest management is recognized as one way to overcome these expected shortages. Development of an effective forest management site classification system is seen as a necessary basis for this implementation. As a prerequisite to the development of such a system, current and future site classification information needs of professional management foresters in Manitoba were surveyed by means of a questionnaire and personal interviews. They were asked to identify the kinds of site classification information needed for different forest management programs and decisions, and to further qualify these in terms of location, scale and temporal suitability. Results of this survey indicate that a system involving both mapping and site-specific approaches is needed. Keywords: forest site classification, Manitoba, forest management, user needs, site mapping

Forest site classification in Alberta: its evolution and present status

The early history of forest site classification in Alberta is briefly reviewed. The major site classification effort, the biogeoclimatic ecosystem classification, and its progress over the past fifteen years is discussed. Available forest ecosystem and soil survey information was combined with other available information to produce a field guide with interpretations for forest management for one area in west-central Alberta. Similar field guides are in preparation. The obstacles to implementing a site classification are discussed, as are opportunities for using new information systems technologies. Key words: Alberta, biogeoclimatic classification, forest ecosystems, forest site classification, site description.

A review of forest site classification activities in Newfoundland and Labrador

This paper provides a review of past and present forest site classification activities in Newfoundland and Labrador over the last thirty years. Initially, research concentrated on the development of a classification system using floristic and edaphic criteria to define forest types. This was followed by a period in which the relationships between forest types and stand productivity were assessed. Subsequently, pilot projects were undertaken in which the forest site classification was incorporated into the biophysical land classification approach and applied to forest capability mapping. In recent years the trend towards more intensive forest management has rekindled interest in forest site classification: emphasis is being placed on technology transfer of site classification to operational foresters in industry and government. Key words: Forest classification, site classification, soils, vegetation, Newfoundland, Labrador, forest ecology

The current status of forest site classification in Ontario

Forest sites are diagnostic forest-landscape ecosystem units that resource managers must deal with during the planning and implementation stages of management. Forest sites are the basic building blocks for undertaking integrated resource management which weighs wildlife, recreation, environmental impact and various other concerns along with timber harvesting. Consequently, accurate and practical systems for classifying and mapping forest sites are becoming increasingly necessary to organize, communicate and use existing and new management knowledge and experience effectively.Over the past four decades in Ontario, a number of studies and resource surveys have provided important background information on forest sites. Many have considered, to varying extents, the integrative roles of vegetation, soil-site, landform and general climate on forests and forest land. Generally, the emphasis has been on description and classification, with results generating a better understanding of how various forests in different areas develop, both qualitatively and quantitatively, in relation to soil-site or other features of the basic land resource. Some of these studies and surveys have been instrumental in advancing the definitions and understanding of forested ecosystems. Others have provided new information on site dynamics, interrelationships and functions, or have contributed to the science (and art) of site evaluation and classification.This paper briefly summarizes the current status of forest site classification in Ontario. Over time, the role of forest site classification has evolved in response to new technologies and information, and to new emphases and values in resource management. In general, site classification research has become increasingly integrative and quantitative. Some of the important future challenges facing forest site classification in Ontario are briefly discussed. Key words: ecological land classification, forest ecology, forest ecosystem classification, forest management interpretations, forest site classification, land use planning, Ontario.

Ecological land survey in Quebec

After a brief review of floristic classifications, ecological survey, as carried out in Quebec, is described. Three stages of development of ecological survey over the past twenty-five years are identified: (1) the pioneer work of Jurdant; (2) major ecological surveys from the late 1960s to the late 1970s; and (3) the diversification of the groups involved in ecological land surveys beginning in the 1980s, including universities, the Quebec Environment Department (MENVIQ) and the Quebec Department of Energy and Resources (MER). Intended for use in integrated land management, ecological survey must be an effective integrator of the various ecological evaluations; the information must be easily communicable and the methodology must be flexible. Ecological land classification has two dimensions: (1) taxonomic; and (2) cartographic. In the taxonomic units, the ecological region, the ecological type and the ecological phase are identified. In cartographic terms, local (ecological phase and type), regional (ecological system and subsystem) and national (ecological district and region) resolution is identified.Quebec universities, MER and MENVIQ are presently involved in ecological land surveys. The new Forest Act, which was enacted in 1986 and which provides for sustainable yield and more intensive forest management, is a major force behind the promotion of the use of ecological inventories as the basis for management activities. Mapping of the ecological regions (1:1,250,000) has almost been completed in Quebec. Total coverage of the commercial forest as a function of ecological districts (1:250,000) could be completed within five years, and the mapping of ecological types (1:20,000) could be completed in 20 years at a rate of 10,000 km2 a year. Although in the past ecological land surveys have been used primarily for environmental impact analyses (for instance, the installation of hydroelectric equipment and transportation corridors), the ecological framework is presently being used to prepare development plans for a number of regional county municipalities (RCMs). Pilot projects are under way to assess the potential applications of the ecological framework to forestry as part of intensive management efforts. Improvements are needed in both the accessibility of the information provided by the ecological framework (maps, site guides) and the development of interpretative tools for silvicultural measures. Key words: ecological survey, ecosystem mapping, ecological land classification, forest ecology, forest site classification, Quebec.

Québec forest ecological classification program

In 1986, the ministère des Forêts du Québec instituted a provincial program to study forest ecosystems entitled the "Forest Ecological Classification (FEC) Program." Under this program, a multidisciplinary team was charged with conducting ecological surveys, analyzing and characterizing the variables of the physical environment, classifying vegetation and preparing integrated forest inventory maps. Their goal is to complete the ecological classification of the forests in all territories south of the 52nd parallel. To undertake such a vast project, it was necessary to prepare detailed methodological guides for data collection, data analysis and mapping. The following products are now available for many different ecological regions: classifications of forest types, toposequences, physiographic and surface deposit maps and integrated forest inventory maps. Multivariate analysis methods are used in analyzing ecological data; in this way, hierarchical classifications and ordinations can be used as the basis for identifying and describing forest types, vegetation-physical environment relationships and successional patterns. Such ecological classification products are an indispensable tool for forest managers and users. Key words: ecological classification, forest ecology, forest management, forest site classification, multivariate analysis, physical environment, Québec.

Forest site classification in New Brunswick

Six site classification field guides covering nine site regions were published in March, 1989. They completed the design phase of a province-wide site classification program begun in 1981. The site classification system is designed as an on-site, preharvest assessment tool for use in mature and overmature natural stands. It incorporates easily recognizable vegetation and soil characteristics to classify each stand into a Vegetation Type (VT), a Soil Type (ST), and a Treatment Unit (TU). Forest management and silvicultural interpretations are given for each TU, with the primary interpretation being site productivity.

Forest site classification activities in Northern Canada

Historically, site classification north of 60°N. Lat. includes related activities conducted by geologists over the last century, particularly the information presented on surficial materials. Ecological land classification provides a technique suitable for evaluating the capability of the land base to satisfy the requirements of various renewable resource sectors. Ecological Land Surveys that included an assessment of forest capability have been used over much of northern Canada. A forest inventory, or cover mapping, has been done for part of the forest environment. The demands on the forest resource are increasing, not only for the utilization of wood products, but also for recreational facilities, tourism, and wildlife habitat. Forest site classification based on ecological factors is essential to provide an informed basis for making resource management and utilization decisions. Some site classification techniques are discussed, and recommendations made in support of continuing classification and surveys for more intensive management and for the preservation and analyses of ecological reserves.