Classical Thinking Research Articles

Inflammation and therapeutic vaccination in CNS diseases.

The spectrum of inflammatory diseases of the central nervous system has been steadily expanding from classical autoimmune disorders such as multiple sclerosis to far more diverse diseases. Evidence now suggests that syndromes such as Alzheimer's disease and stroke have important inflammatory and immune components and may be amenable to treatment by anti-inflammatory and immunotherapeutic approaches. The notion of 'vaccinating' individuals against a neurodegenerative disorder such as Alzheimer's disease is a marked departure from classical thinking about mechanism and treatment, and yet therapeutic vaccines for both Alzheimer's disease and multiple sclerosis have been validated in animal models and are in the clinic. Such approaches, however, have the potential to induce unwanted inflammatory responses as well as to provide benefit.

Images in Mind: Statues in Archaic and Classical Greek Literature and Thought (review)

Images in Mind: Statues in Archaic and Classical Greek Literature and Thought (review)

O Direito, a Globalização e Uma Nova Visão de Mundo

Legal thinking urgendy needs new ways of organizing and generating its structures. It is su- ffocated by old classic traditions; stagnated by dogmas and principies that served to aid odier systems at other times and places, but not the needs of contemporary society. Technology and biotechnology are the greatest advances of contemporary society. They call for modifications in the structure and the way we think about Law. Globalization might be the answer for the trans- formation from legal classical thinking to a broader type that takes into account the web of rela- tions that exist in the actual social context by providing a new world vision.

An idea of community and its discontents: towards a more reflexive sense of belonging in multicultural Britain

The paper poses the question: what are the epistemological consequences of an unreflexive use of the concept of community as the privileged container of cultural difference? The argument is made that contemporary notions of ethnic minority communities as deployed in official and demotic discourse have a complex history which may usefully be traced through classical sociological and anthropological thinking on the idea of community as connoting the premodern and non-Western. This is supplemented by a discussion of the contribution of ideas from these disciplines to contemporary imaginings of ethnic difference in 'multicultural' Britain.

La Persiana és verda : idees de correcció i estils intel.lectuals

Arguments about purity and simplicity are recursive. We gain insight connecting purity in language with correction in other domains. The anthropologist point of view developped by Mary Douglas about «Thought Styles» may help our research in linguistic and pragmatic variation. The main aim of this paper is to show the interest of this programme and the guidelines for its application. Classical thinking about the topic (Cicero, Dante or Locke) could be considered in its proper terms, aswell as early contributions as that of Jespersen. Conflictive periods of rule conflict (on linguistic norms) could be analysed on these grounds. Discourse analysis and Catalana historiography could renovate their tacit presuppositions if we take into account how values and emotions are socially related to stylistic preferences and pragmatic compromises.

Socialinis pažinimas kaip vertybių teorija (W. Windelbandas, H. Rickertas)

Straipsnyje analizuojama neokantizmo atstovų (W.Windelbando, H. Rickerto) socialinio pažinimo samprata, tiesos ir vertybės perskyros problema. Neokantininkai, pažinimą pagal jo metodus suskirstę į gamtamokslinį ir istorinį, siekė išvengti gamtos ir visuomenės mokslų supriešinimo ir išsaugoti monistinį pažinimo pobūdį. Riba tarp natūros ir kultūros pirmiausia nubrėžiama vertybių. Jos leidžia rekonstruoti ne tik pačią kultūrą, bet ir jos pažinimą, teorinį kultūros pasaulio rekonstravimą. Neokantininkai teigė, kad vertybių pasaulis yra transcendentinis. Pažinimo, suaugusio su vertybėmis, objektyvumą daro problemišką ta aplinkybė, kad vertybė visuomet yra tam tikra subjekto ir objekto koreliacija. Neokantininkai, pripažinę kultūros pasaulio vertybinę prigimtį, ieškojo būdų, kaip socialinei teorijai suteikti objektyvumo, o jos turinį padaryti bešališką: tam grynojo transcendento sferoje susidariusios vertybės paskelbiamos ne individualiomis, o visuotinėmis. Gamtos ir visuomenės pažinimas skiriasi metodais: individualizuojantis (ideografinis) metodas būdingas kultūros (istorijos) mokslams, jis operuoja ne tiesomis, o vertybėmis.

Pathophysiology and clinical applications of nitric oxide

Pathophysiology and clinical applications of nitric oxide Gabor Rubanyi; Amsterdam; 1999; Harwood; 586 pages; $220.00. The book Pathophysiology and Clinical Applications of Nitric Oxide , edited by one of the leaders in endothelial cell research, Gabor Rubanyi, is a terrific addition to the Endothelial Cell Research series. It is dedicated to the three scientists who received the 1998 Nobel prize in medicine for discovering nitric oxide as a novel mediator of many biological functions. This is a two-part book, with part A beginning with a historical perspective on NO in biology by R. F. Furchgott. His essential observation that the endothelium was necessary to mediate vasodilation to acetylcholine began what is now a huge and growing field of NO research. Since this landmark observation, NO has been implicated not only in normal biologic function, but also in many pathophysiologic processes, including inflammatory diseases, ischemia and reperfusion injury, and reproductive diseases. Although there have been many good books written on NO, what sets this book apart from the rest is the expansion to both disease processes and therapeutic applications of NO. This is truly the way of the future for NO and an important advancement to make. It is amazing how far NO research has progressed in just the past 5 years. The first part of this book describes in detail the generation and biological actions of NO. This includes chapters that give state-of-the-art comprehensive examinations of such features as the structure/function relationships of the isoforms of NO synthase and the regulation of NO synthase gene expression, as well as the regulation of gene expression by NO. One of my favorite chapters in part A is chapter 8, “NO and the Regulation of Vasoactive Genes.” This chapter describes just how complex NO activity on biological functions can be: a decrease in oxygen tension (hypoxia) affects the synthesis and release of vasoactive substances. Nitric oxide, a vasoactive substance itself, has been shown to affect the genes that encode these hypoxia-induced substances. In other words, NO can act as a feedback molecule and modulate hypoxia-induced signals. These findings go beyond our classic thinking that NO acts alone during hypoxia/ischemia, because there appear to be crucial interactions among NO, gene expression, and hypoxia that may help explain disease processes such as atherosclerosis, pulmonary hypertension, and systemic sclerosis. Part B of this two-part series contains two sections: one on NO and the pathophysiology of disease and one on therapeutic applications. The inclusion of these two sections makes this book stand out from others. Although not all diseases relating to NO function are covered, there are specific chapters that address many of the complications associated with NO. Several chapters that I particularly enjoyed were those that are not as prominently associated with NO such as preterm labor, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple sclerosis. Everyone can learn from those chapters. It is also fitting and enlightening to read the last part of this book on therapeutic applications of NO. This section signifies that we have moved forward in our understanding of NO and its role in disease to the stage where we are ready to consider treatments. This includes such approaches as gene therapies either to provide necessary NO to where it is lacking (eg, by replacing deficient iNOS) or to decrease NO production during times when it is too great (eg, by NOS and peroxynitrite inhibition). I recommend this book to anyone interested in nitric oxide. doi:10.1067/mva.2000.105886

Optimal use of modern antibiotics: emerging trends.

Development of new antimicrobial drugs is an essential component in the effort to remain ahead of emerging microbial resistance. However, when new antibiotics are used with unrestrained enthusiasm, a predictable consequence is the further expansion of resistance. This problem is well known to the infectious diseases specialist and is increasingly appreciated by the nonspecialist and the public. A far more sensible strategy is to identify new ways to use these drugs to increase the duration of their usefulness. New methods to optimize antibiotic selection, dose, and duration of therapy are being investigated, and application of some of these strategies has been shown to have a favorable impact on resistance. Much of the classic thinking of how to use antibiotics is changing, and these newer strategies may result in prolongation of the era of the "antibiotic miracle."

History of economic thought

Note: Each chapter includes a Summary, Key Terms, Questions for Review and Discussion, and Suggested Readings. 1. Introduction The Central Focus of Modern Economic Thought Our Approach to the History of Economic Thought The Role of Heterodox Economists The Problems of Presenting Diversity Methodological Issues Benefits to Be Gained from the Study of the History of Economic Thought Appendix for Chapter 1 The Profession of Economics and Its Methodology The Spread of Economic Ideas The Evolution of Methodological Thought I. Preclassical Economics 2. Early Preclassical Economic Thought Important Writers Some Broad Generalizations Non-Western Economic Thought Greek Thought Arab-Islamic Thought Scholasticism 3. Mercantilism, Physiocracy, and Other Precursors of Classical Economic Thought Important Writers Mercantilism Influential Precursors of Classical Thought Physiocracy Spanish Economic Thought II. Classical Economic Thought, and Its Critics Important Writers 4. Adam Smith The Breadth of Adam Smith Smith's Analysis of Markets and Policy Conclusions The Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations International Trade Value Theory Distribution Theory Welfare and the General Level of Prices 5. Ricardo and Malthus David Ricardo--A Theorist's Theorist The Malthusian Population Doctrine Ricardo: Method, Policy, Scope Ricardo's Model Ricardo's Theory of Land Rent Ricardo's Value Theory Ricardian Distribution Theory Comparative Advantage Stability and Growth in a Capitalistic Economy 6. J.S. Mill and the Decline of Classical Economics Post-Ricardian Developments J.S. Mill: The Background of His Thought Millian Economics 7. Karl Marx and His Critique of Classical Economics An Overview of Marx Marx's Economic Theories Marx's Analysis of Capitalism III. Neoclassical Economic Thought and Its Critics 8. Jevons, Menger, and The Foundations of Marginal Analysis Important Writers Historical Links Jevons, Menger, and Walras Second-Generation Austrians 9. The Transition to Neoclassical Economics: Marginal Analysis Extended Important Writers Marginal Analysis Extended: The Second Generation Marginal Productivity Theory Profits and Interest 10. Alfred Marshall and Neoclassical Economics Marshall's Claim to Being the Father of Neoclassicism 11. Walras and General Equilibrium Theory Walras's General Equilibrium System Vilfredo Pareto 12. Institutional and Historical Critics of Neoclassical Economics Important Writers Methodological Controversy Thorstein Veblen Wesley Clair Mitchell John R. Commons John A. Hobson 13. Austrian Critique of Neoclassical Economics and the Debate about Socialism and Capitalism Important Writers Defining Capitalism and Socialism The Emergence of Capitalistic Thought The Evolution of Austrian Thought The Development of Socialist Economic Thought The Debate Concerning Economic Systems IV. Modern Economics and Its Critics The State of Modern Economics The Structure of Part Four 14. The Development of Modern Microeconomic Theory Important Writers The Movement Away from Marshallian Economics The Formalist Revolution in Microeconomics Milton Firedman and the Chicago Approach to Microeconomics Problems with Modern Applied Economics A Comparison of Neoclassical and Modern Microeconomics 15. The Development of Modern Macroeconomic Thought Important Writers Historical Forerunners of Modern Macroeconomics Keynesian Macroeconomics Modern Macroeconomics 16. The Development of Econometrics and Empirical Methods in Economics Important Writers Empirical Economics Neoclassical Economics and Empirical Analysis Macroeconomics and Empirical Analysis The Rise of Econometrics The Fall from Scientific Grace of Macroeconomics Bayesian Econometrics Experimental Economists 17. The Development of Modern Heterodox Economic Thought Important Writers Radicals Modern Institutionalists, Quasi-Institutionalists, and Neoinstitutionalists Quasi-Institutionalists Neoinstitutionalists Post-Keynesians Public Choice Advocates Austrian Economics Other Heterodox Economic Groups

Confucian Order at the Edge of Chaos: The Science of Complexity and Ancient Wisdom

Many academics extol chaos theory and the science of complexity as significant scientific advances with application in such diverse fields as biology, anthropology, economics, and history. In this paper we focus our attention on structure‐within‐chaos and the dynamic self‐organization of complex systems in the context of social philosophy. Although the modern formulation of the science of complexity has developed out of late‐twentieth‐century physics and computational mathematics, its roots may extend much deeper into classical thinking. We argue here that the essential ideas and predictions of the science of complexity are found within the social ordering principle of li (the rites) in Confucius's Analects.

Architecture and control of an adaptive high capacity flat network

This article discusses the design of a scalable high-performance multiservice network based on programmable transport. A meshed network with dynamically adjustable link capacities and nodes which provide data packing into "containers" for transport is proposed. A ring-based network, exchanging data containers among its nodes, is the preferred implementation due to its flexibility, maintainability, and high reliability. With lossless rings, the quality of service is controlled solely by the origin and destination nodes, without any interference from other data streams. Flexible programmable transport greatly improves the performance, simplifies the controls, and facilitates scalability. The concept is a departure from classical network thinking. By reducing the complexity of the network core, an economical, reliable, and manageable network with feature-rich edge nodes can be realized. An architecture with recursive ring-based structures provides a high degree of flexibility in bandwidth allocation and is compatible with current transport networks and future all-optical networks.

Micro Relativity

Abstract A new synthesis based on microscopic classical thinking is attempted in the spirit of the molecular-dynamics-simulation (MDS) paradigm. Leibniz’s idea that joint scale transformations cancel out is invoked. Boltzmann discovered that a time reversal in the whole universe is undetectable from the inside. As a corollary, objective micro time reversals occur in the interface between a subsystem and the rest of the universe, whenever the former undergoes a time reversal. This is shown to occur in a generic class of Hamiltonian systems. The “microinterface” arrived at generalizes the macro frame of relativity to the micro realm. Micro relativity comprises Bohr’s idea of an observer-relative complementarity and Everett’s idea of an observer-relative state. As in relativity proper, a multiplicity of worlds (cuts) exist. For the inhabitants of an artificial MDS universe, therefore a radically new option is available: world change technology.

An American‐British economic, monetary, financial and social stabilization plan

The equation of unified knowledge says that S = f (A,P) which means that the practical solution to a given problem is a function of the existing, empirical, actual realities and the future, potential, best possible conditions of general stable equilibrium which both pure and practical reason, exhaustive in the Kantian sense, show as being within the realm of potential realities beyond any doubt. The first classical revolution in economic thinking, included in factor “P” of the equation, conceived the economic and financial problems in terms of a model of ideal conditions of stable equilibrium but neglected the full consideration of the existing, actual conditions. That is the main reason why, in the end, it failed. The second modern revolution, included in factor “A” of the equation, conceived the economic and financial problems in terms of the existing, actual conditions, usually in disequilibrium or unstable equilibrium (in case of stagnation) and neglected the sense of right direction expressed in factor “P” or the realization of general, stable equilibrium. That is the main reason why the modern revolution failed in the past and is failing in front of our eyes in the present. The equation of unified knowledge, perceived as a sui generis synthesis between classical and modern thinking has been applied rigorously and systematically in writing the enclosed American‐British economic, monetary, financial and social stabilization plans. In the final analysis, a new economic philosophy, based on a synthesis between classical and modern thinking, called here the new economics of unified knowledge, is applied to solve the malaise of the twentieth century which resulted from a confusion between thinking in terms of stable equilibrium on the one hand and disequilibrium or unstable equilibrium on the other.

The Elements of Social Theory. By Barry Barnes. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996. 263p. $29.95. - Politics, Sociology, and Social Theory: Encounters with Classical and Contemporary Social Thought. By Anthony Giddens. Stanford University Press, 1995. 304p. $45.00 cloth, $16.95 paper.

The Elements of Social Theory. By Barry Barnes. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996. 263p. $29.95. - Politics, Sociology, and Social Theory: Encounters with Classical and Contemporary Social Thought. By Anthony Giddens. Stanford University Press, 1995. 304p. $45.00 cloth, $16.95 paper.

Henry Thornton and the Development of Classical Monetary Economics

Students of nineteenth-century economics have held Henry Thornton in high esteem since his 'rediscovery' by Jacob Viner and Friedrich Hayek in the 1920s. Thornton has been praised for the sophistication of his macroeconomic thinking a for the extent to which he developed ideas later associated with giants such as Knut Wicksell and J. M. Keynes. However, the consensus has been that he had little effect on the development of British classical monetary economics. I show that the consensus is wrong by demonstrating that Thornton affected the course of classical thinking in important ways, particularly through his influence on members of the Banking School. Thornton was not simply a precursor of modern thought but was one of the dominant figures of classical monetary economics.

Michel Foucault e o nascimento da modernidade

O artigo investiga a leitura de Michel Foucault a respeito da origem do pensamento moderno na virada do século XVIII para o século XIX. Essencialmente diferente do pensamento clássico, o moderno se enraiza na história, no condicionado, na finitude. Aí, novos objetos se tornam possíveis (vida, produção, linguagem), bem como uma nova filosofia (a crítica). E, do interior desse espaço epistêmico novo, uma figura ausente na tradição do pensamento ocidental: o Homem.

Effect of anticoagulation and inhibition of platelet aggregation on arterial versus venous microvascular thrombosis.

On the basis of clinical empirical observations and classic theory of platelet aggregation, microvascular surgeons have held that platelet aggregation is more responsible for arterial thrombosis and fibrin clot formation is more responsible for venous thrombosis. This theory was tested in two models of thrombosis, one created in arteries and the other in veins, using systemic antithrombotic agents. The models were pair matched in rats, creating a crush-avulsion injury to the femoral artery on one leg and a crushing injury to the femoral vein on the contralateral leg. There were four treatment groups (n = 15 per group): systemic heparin, aspirin and dipyridamole, both sets of agents, and dual controls (vehicle treated). One-day patency rates in the controls were 13.4% and 0% for the arterial and venous models, respectively. Heparin treatment caused an increase in arterial patency to 73.3% but had no effect on venous patency (6.7%). Aspirin and dipyridamole had a modest effect on venous patency (40%) but had no effect on arterial patency (6.7%). Administration of both sets of agents led to 100% and 86.7% patency in the arterial and venous models, respectively. Patency rates were maintained at the 7-day evaluation in the arteries; in contrast, all thrombosed veins were found to be patent 7 days postoperatively (100% patency in all groups). These findings are in contrast to classic thinking about microvascular thrombosis, but this reverse effect may be unique to the rat. The high rate of recanalization in thrombosed veins indicates a need for caution in performing experimental studies of patency in rat veins.

Perspectives on the History of Economic Thought, I: Classical and Neoclassical Economic Thought.

Perspectives on the History of Economic Thought, I: Classical and Neoclassical Economic Thought.

A Freudian Slip?

A humorous slip of the tongue affords a vivid introduction to theories of the mind. Interpretations offered here derive from classic Freudian thinking, a contemporary psychodynamic perspective, and two cognitive models that view the slip as unmotivated.

Land use systems and property rights

Two lines of reasoning on very long term socio-economic change, which was a basic issue of classical economic thinking, are confronted: New Institutional Economics (NIE) and Evolutionary Economics (EE). It is demonstrated that EE offers an explanation which is both more consistent and more comprehensive. The case in point is the first economic revolution.