Concepts Of Classical Physics Research Articles

The Crystalline Ether

This paper summarizes how a new approach to the Universe based on the existence of a "crystalline ether", which has recently been detailed in the third versions of two books [1], makes it possible to find a simple, unified and coherent explanation of all the theories of modern physics and of the Universe. The basic concepts of this approach can be summarized as follows: (i) the support of the Universe is a form of "crystalline ether" which consists of a solid and inertial lattice, of face-centered cubic structure, with the simplest possible elasticity, and in which matter is represented by the set of topological singularities of this lattice (loops of dislocations, disinclinations and dispirations), and (ii) this lattice exclusively satisfies, in absolute space, the basic classical physical concepts that are Newton's law and the two principles of thermodynamics. With these basic classical concepts alone, we show that it is possible to find all the modern theories of physics, namely that the behaviors of this lattice (the Universe) and its topological singularities (the Matter) satisfy electromagnetism, special relativity, general relativity, gravitation, quantum physics, cosmology and even the standard model of elementary particles.

Key Experiment and Quantum Reasoning

For around five decades, physicists have been experimenting with single quanta such as single photons. Insofar as the practised ensemble reasoning has become obsolete for the interpretation of these experiments, the non-classical intrinsic probabilistic nature of quantum theory has gained increased importance. One of the most important exclusive features of quantum physics is the undeniable existence of the superposition of states, even for single quantum objects. One known example of this effect is entanglement. In this paper, two classically contradictory phenomena are combined to one single experiment. This experiment incontestably shows that a single photon incident on an optical beam splitter can either be reflected or transmitted. The almost complete absence of coincident clicks of two photodetectors demonstrates that these two output states are incompatible. However, when combining these states using two mirrors, we can observe interference patterns in the counting rate of the single photon detector. The only explanation for this is that the two incompatible output states are prepared and kept simultaneously—a typical consequence of a quantum superposition of states. (Semi-)classical physical concepts fail here, and a full quantum concept is predestined to explain the complementary experimental outcomes for the quantum optical “non-waves” called single photons. In this paper, we intend to demonstrate that a true quantum physical key experiment (“true” in the sense that it cannot be explained by any classical physical concept), when combined with full quantum reasoning (probability, superposition and interference), influences students’ readiness to use quantum elements for interpretation.

The Role of the Excluded

We consider the peculiarity of unique events, such as those of a natural, evolutionary, and social nature. In particular, we consider unique social events that have had either the claim or the vocation of being salvific for humanity, such as the introduction over time of the Torah, Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam. We question how the claimed, general salvific vocation contrasts, or is inconsistent with, the non-retroactive temporality and locality of such events, which could not have happened otherwise. This undeclared and philosophically unsolved inconsistency then reappears in subsequent cultural contradictions and inadequacies, political and social allowances such as, for instance, homo-centrism and a pathological relation with Nature. In the case of Christianity, this inconsistency is represented by the painting reproduced in the article, a work in which the excluded humans and other living beings are represented as astonished by the occurrence in this moment, and in such an unnatural context. Furthermore, we consider the original understanding as related to concepts of classical physics, or of such concepts naively adopted within the texts considered sacred. However, in some religions, such as Christianity, the inconsistency is theologically solved. We stress the need to update the ancient original elementary, naïve, pre-classic philosophical and conceptual frameworks used so that these alleged inconsistencies and contradictions may be not only theologically solved, but also conceptually solved in more complex understandings of the world, for example, considering relativistic time, long-range interdependence, quantum entanglement, and theories of the universe. Without this update, the unique saving events can affect only religiously, that is, optionally, on the scientific and philosophical conceptions used. Without this adjustment, homo-centrist illusion and egoism prevail as the natural, linear consequential attitude without raising these questions. It rather assumes that the intervention is for involved human beings, and moreover for those who have had and are lucky enough to receive and practice it, ignoring the enormous inconsistency within the message itself, and its presumed general and available salvific nature. This requires theological, philosophical, and scientific interdisciplinarity. The theme concerns inconsistencies within and superficiality of the narratives and their treatment of the unique, salvific events, without any reference to possible general and retroactive effects of how these events are represented in the painting. We conclude that the subject should be debated by taking into account contemporary understandings, such as relativistic space and time, quantum physics, and of the universe, with new philosophical and anthropological approaches. This should be a matter of responsible philosophical and theological interdisciplinary debate involving science, suitable to establish new understandings.

Quantum-Mechanical Derivation of the Formula of Mass – Energy Equivalence of A. Einstein.

Using energy quantization according to Planck and de Broglie wave-particle duality, the Einstein mass and energy equivalence formula is theoretically rigorously derived. The conclusion of this formula is also given on the basis of the concepts of classical physics and the principle of mass equivalence. It is shown that the equivalence of invariant and gravitational masses in the micro-world manifests itself as the duality of the wave and particle, which expresses the equivalence of kinetic and potential energies. But, since the equivalence of the particle and wave properties of micro-particles has long been proven experimentally, therefore, the principle of mass equivalence can be considered strictly proved.

The generalized spin-orbit interaction: A microscopic origin of the Ørsted magnetic field

This work introduces a generalization of the form of the spin-orbit interaction, the generalized spin-orbit interaction (GSOI). It expresses the magnetic field induced by two charged particles moving with a non-zero relative velocity as a field defined at all points in space, and exists in the reference frames of both particles. This is in contrast to spin-orbit interaction theory, in which the generated magnetic field is defined at only one point in space, and exists in the reference frame of one of the two particles. At the macroscopic scale, it is shown that the GSOI theory implies the same form of the Ørsted magnetic field produced by a current-carrying wire. However, the theory is incompatible with the microscopic form of the Biot-Savart equation that implies that a charged particle induces a magnetic field by having a non-zero velocity. The implications of the GSOI theory on properties of the Ørsted magnetic field in current-carrying atomically thin two-dimensional materials, such as graphene, are discussed. The framework established in this paper aims at re-imagining classical physical concepts in light of an advanced microscopic understanding.

Optomechanical Bell Test.

Over the past few decades, experimental tests of Bell-type inequalities have been at the forefront of understanding quantum mechanics and its implications. These strong bounds on specific measurements on a physical system originate from some of the most fundamental concepts of classical physics-in particular that properties of an object are well-defined independent of measurements (realism) and only affected by local interactions (locality). The violation of these bounds unambiguously shows that the measured system does not behave classically, void of any assumption on the validity of quantum theory. It has also found applications in quantum technologies for certifying the suitability of devices for generating quantum randomness, distributing secret keys and for quantum computing. Here we report on the violation of a Bell inequality involving a massive, macroscopic mechanical system. We create light-matter entanglement between the vibrational motion of two silicon optomechanical oscillators, each comprising approx. 10^{10} atoms, and two optical modes. This state allows us to violate a Bell inequality by more than 4 standard deviations, directly confirming the nonclassical behavior of our optomechanical system under the fair sampling assumption.

GRAVITATIONAL INTERACTION IN THE MEDIUM OF NON-ZERO DENSITY

The paper presents the novel results obtained by more comprehensively analyzing well-known and clearly visible physical processes associated with gravitational interaction in the system of material bodies in the medium of non-zero density. The work is based on the statement that the buoyancy (Archimedes) force acting on the material body located in a medium of nonzero density is of the gravitational nature. Due to this approach, we managed, staying in the framework of classical physics and mechanics definitions, to introduce the concept of the body’s gravitating mass as a mass determining the gravitational interaction intensity and also to establish an analytical relation between the gravitating and inertial masses of the material body. Combining the direct and indirect (Archimedes force) gravitational effect on the material body in the medium, we succeeded in distinguishing from the total gravitational field of this system a structure with a dipole-like field line distribution. This fact allows us to assert that, along with the gravitational attraction, there exists also gravitational repulsion of material bodies, and this fact does not contradict the meanings of existing basic definitions and concepts of classical physics and mechanics.

Manifestations of classical physics in the quantum evolution of correlated spin states in pulsed NMR experiments.

Multiple‐pulse NMR experiments are a powerful tool for the investigation of molecules with coupled nuclear spins. The product operator formalism provides a way to understand the quantum evolution of an ensemble of weakly coupled spins in such experiments using some of the more intuitive concepts of classical physics and semi‐classical vector representations. In this paper I present a new way in which to interpret the quantum evolution of an ensemble of spins. I recast the quantum problem in terms of mixtures of pure states of two spins whose expectation values evolve identically to those of classical moments. Pictorial representations of these classically evolving states provide a way to calculate the time evolution of ensembles of weakly coupled spins without the full machinery of quantum mechanics, offering insight to anyone who understands precession of magnetic moments in magnetic fields.

Extrasensory Perception and Quantum Models of Cognition

The possibility that information can be acquired at a distance without the use of the ordinary senses, that is byextrasensory perception � (ESP), is not easily accommodated by conventional neuroscientific assumptions or by traditional theories underlying our understanding of perception and cognition. The lack of theoretical support has marginalized the study of ES P, but experiments investigating these phenomena have been conducted since the mid -19th century, and the empirical database has been slowly accumulating. Today, using modern experimental methods and meta -analytical techniques, a persuasive case can be madethat, neuroscience assumptions notwithstanding, ESP does exist. We justify this conclusion through discussion of one class of homogeneous experiments reported in 108 publications and conducted from 1974 through 2008 by laboratories around the world. Subse ts of these data have been subjected to six meta -analyses, and each shows significantly positive effects. The overall results now provide unambiguous evidence for an independently repeatable ESP effect. This indicates that traditional cognitive and neuroscience models, which are largely based on classical physical concepts, are incomplete. We speculate that more comprehensive models will require new principles based on a more comprehensive physics. The current candidate is quantum mechanics.

Are all measurement outcomes “classical”?

In Bohr's view, all measurement outcomes, even in microphysics, are “classical” because they are expressed by means of the concepts of classical physics (or by everyday concepts refined by classical physics). This paper provides a careful analysis of Bohr's arguments in favour of this claim; the one concerning the possibility of using classical concepts so as to express the measurement outcomes, and the one concerning its necessity. Both arguments are shown to fail. Nevertheless, it appears that the concepts which are in fact used for the description of the measurement outcomes in microphysics originate from classical physics and the scales associated with the measured observables are extensions of the ones associated with the classical physical magnitudes. In this respect, the measurement outcomes in microphysics can be considered as “classical” by reference to classical physics only in a narrow sense.

Modern Physics for Engineers

After a short review of some essential concepts of classical physics (with a discussion of the so-called `scientific method', which is rarely found in textbooks of this kind), including the classical description of particles and waves, together with a sketch of statistical thermodynamics, the basics of quantum mechanics are introduced. The third chapter then treats systems of identical particles and their statistics, as well as the statistics of discrete energy levels. This is followed by an extensive presentation of the behaviour of quantum particles in periodic potentials with obvious applications to crystalline materials, including metals, insulators, semiconductors and superconductors. The band structure of some special materials, intrinsic carrier concentrations and electrons in metals are further topics of this main chapter. In most quantum mechanics textbooks the subjects of the fifth chapter, quantum wells, harmonic oscillators and the hydrogen atom, are usually introduced before a discussion of periodic potentials, but the author's exposition makes it quite plausible to place them afterwards. The concept of tunnelling through potential barriers and important application examples, ranging from ohmic contacts to scanning tunnelling microscopy and even radioactivity, make up the next chapter. Some approximation methods, i.e. stationary perturbation theory with applications to coupled wells, and the variational method, are treated in the next chapter. The final chapter dealing with quantum mechanics then is concerned with scattering and collision problems, again, of course, with examples from solid state physics. This last chapter, however, looks somehow merely added on, since it introduces only quite briefly the theory of special relativity -almost certainly in order not to leave out this important revolution of modern physics. Three appendices, on Fermi's Golden Rule, Boltzmann's transport theory and quantum interference devices, round off the contents. The book abounds with links to modern technologies that have evolved out of quantum mechanics (with, of course, the exception of the last chapter on special relativity). To the reviewer this constitutes its outstanding value as a textbook on quantum mechanics for engineering students. In addition, about 100 solved numerical examples in the text illustrate very lucidly some of the more abstract concepts, and at the end of the chapters altogether 200 further problems are posed. Although some of the concepts and results of quantum mechanics are introduced in a seemingly ad hoc manner, nevertheless the book as a whole certainly represents a valuable teaching tool at engineering schools; even physics majors may profit from the wealth of technical applications not usually found in their textbooks on quantum mechanics.

Relativistic wave packing and quantization

It is shown that an alternative version of Schro¨dinger theory based only on classical physical concepts makes possible a simple and direct derivation of Sommerfeld's fine-structure formula in an external field independent way in the general context of bound electronic states. It is thus demonstrated that this formula is of classical origin and of much greater generality than had previously been thought.

“Ist die Quantenphysik vollständig?”

This paper examines the three central theses of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. (1) Quantum mechanics must make use of concepts of classical physics; (2) descriptions which in classical physis are mutually exclusive are complementary descriptions of the same objects in quantum mechanics; (3) the uncertainty relations are natural laws which determine the limits of the application of classical concepts to micro-physical objects. Usually, these central theses of the Copenhagen interpretation are interpreted in a realistic-ontological manner. This paper criticizes this position, and, by means of a comparative investigation of the function of models in classical physics and quantum mechanics, proposes a model-theoretic interpretation. This interpretation lays special stress on the fictional status of models in quantum mechanics.

The time of arrival in quantum mechanics III. The measurement ensemble

This paper contains further discussion of the phenomena and problems of interpretation which arise when a nonrelativistic quantum particle falls upon an apparatus designed to measure the time of its arrival at a fixed spatial point. Full allowance is made for the finite time resolution of the apparatus. The probabilities elicited in the various time-labelled output channels of the apparatus are studied to see whether it is possible to represent them in terms of the classical concept of an apparatus-independent arrival probability per unit time as input. It is proved that a classical interpretation of the type required can only be given at an approximate level. Two distinct types of uncertainty appear in every attempted inference from the observed output probabilities to the hypothetical input probabilities. The first type of uncertainty applies to the magnitudes of the inferred input probabilities. It is found that the output probabilities are never completely consistent with the idea that the action of the apparatus is merely to process an incoming and apparatus-independent arrival probability distribution. The apparatus is in fact processing an incoming and apparatus-independent wave, and this gives rise to superimposed and temporally correlated apparatus-dependent quantum deviations in the magnitude of the output. Because of these, the output cannot be accurately described in any scheme which uses only the classical particle concept of arrival probability and the measurement concepts of classical physics, and therefore exact inference is not possible. There are however certain aspects of the apparatus response which can be interpreted in a classical way to within a small and effectively random error. The search for these aspects discloses that the times to be associated with the inferred input probabilities are also uncertain. This is the second type of uncertainty. The input probabilities for arrival which can be approximately inferred from experiment correspond to weighted averages over time intervals having various independently assigned end points. Neither the beginning, the duration, nor the end of a time interval can be specified with complete precision if one wishes to use the measured output to infer an input probability falling within the interval. The inferential uncertainty in the arrival probability and the uncertainty in the definition of the associated time interval are subject to a mutual relationship not unlike the relationships of uncertainty which apply in problems of measurement of complementary pairs of dynamical variables. If the end points of a time interval are defined rather sharply, and more particularly if they are also rather close together, then the input arrival probability which can be inferred for that interval becomes correspondingly uncertain, and vice versa. The relationship of complementarity between the magnitudes of the uncertainties in the probability and in the time is found to be mathematically the same as that which applies to individual arrival-time measurements, although the uncertainties themselves have a somewhat different physical meaning in the two cases. (In an individual measurement the relevant time uncertainty does not refer to the temporal location of a partial probability, but arises directly for the single event concerned because the time resolution of the apparatus is finite. Likewise the probability uncertainty does not refer to the magnitude of a partial probability, but rather to the chance that the attempt to observe the impending individual arrival event will fail due to reflection of the incident wave by the apparatus). From this mathematical equivalence, which holds good in spite of the obvious contextual differences, it follows that the concept of arrival time is effectively subject to one and the same irreducible uncertainty, irrespective of whether the concept be applied to the analysis of an individual event or to the analysis of the ensemble. The approximately measurable arrival probability distribution which emerges from the analysis of the ensemble is quantitatively different from the well known probability current. Good reasons are found to explain why this difference occurs. The uncertainty relation between energy and time is written in a new and modified form, in order to take account of the extra uncertainty inherent in the statistical arrival-time concept. The statistical concept of time delay in scattering processes is also examined. It is shown that the statistical concept of time delay can be measured with complete precision in an ensemble of arrival-time experiments, even though the corresponding arrival-time probability distributions can only be inferred approximately and with finite time uncertainty.

Hidden Variables and the Copenhagen Interpretation—A Reconciliation1

One of the most interesting features of the quantum theory from the philosopher's point of view is the so-called measurement problem.2 There are various ways of formulating this problem, either with reference to the time evolution of an individual system, or in terms of the statistical properties of ensembles. Basically, the problem is to provide an explanation for the fact that within the framework of the quantum theory physical processes involving measurement differ fundamentally from physical processes which do not involve measurement. This is in sharp contrast to the classical theory, according to which a measurement process is not different, in principle, from any other physical process. 'Providing an explanation' in this context means either 'providing an interpretation of the quantum theory', or 'providing a new theory with its own interpretation'. The Copenhagen interpretation is generally regarded as the orthodox interpretation of the quantum theory. As expressed by Bohr, this view emphasises a 'feature of wholeness typical of proper quantum phenomena'3 -the integral relationship between the measuring instrument and the system measured. The 'feature of wholeness' is introduced via an argument which involves the assumption that unambiguously communicable information about what is observed is necessarily described in terms of the concepts of classical physics, or refinements of classical concepts. This argument leads to the conclusion that the quantum theoretical description Received I September 1967

The Physics Course in the Secondary School

New branches of physics have emerged in the 20th century. A special and general theory of relativity, quantum mechanics, nuclear physics, the physics of elementary particles, and quantum radiophysics have been created on the basis of concepts that are qualitatively different from the concepts of classical physics. The creation of the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics signifies a radical revision of the very fundamentals of physics.

On the interpretation of quantum mechanics

After a brief discussion of the reasons for the complete failure of a deterministic interpretation of quantum mechanics (§ 1)Niels Bohr's ideas on quantum mechanics are exposed. The importance of Bohr's idea on the necessity of combining the quantum-mechanical description of atomic objects with a classical description of the instruments is stressed (§ 2).It is pointed out, however, that the terminology used by Bohr often gives rise to misunderstandings and to a positivistic interpretation of his ideas. This, in turn, creates an opposition to the new ideas (de Eroglie school) (§ 3).In the following the concept of relativity with respect to observation means is introduced and it is stressed that relativity does not exclude objectivity (§ 4).The meaning of the term “instrument” as used in quantum mechanics is explained (§ 5).It is pointed out that wave-corpuscular duality is connected with the inherent possibility of the electron to manifest itself, according to the external conditions prevailing, as a wave, or as a corpuscle, or in an intermediate way. A more literal interpretation of duality based on some model is inadmissible (§ 6).The probabilistic description of the interaction of an atomic object with an instrument, resulting in a probability distribution for the measured quantity, is discussed and the primary character of probability in quantum mechanics is stressed (§ 7).If a subdivision of the experimental arrangement in a preparatory part, a working part and a registration part is possible, one can vary the last stage of experiment and obtain probability distributions referring to the same initial state. Since these are parametrically expressed in terms of one and the same wave function, this function is independent of the last stage of experiment. By making the corresponding abstraction one is led to the quantum-mechanical concept of state as described by a wave function (§ 8).The necessity of distinguishing in quantum mechanics the potentially possible from the accomplished is compared with the concepts of classical physics and with the notions of everyday life (§ 9).The nature of the statistical collective to which the quantum-mechanical probabilities refer is discussed and it is shown that the statistical character of quantum mechanics does not contradict the fact that this theory describes the properties of an individual object (§ 10).The role and position of the causality principle in quantum mechanics is discussed and the nature of the so-called “reduction of a wave-packet” explained (§ 11).The necessity of incorporating the new ideas in the materialistics philosophy and of a further development of dialectic materialism is stressed (§ 12).