Classical Conditioning Theory Research Articles

Price as a Proxy of Quality: Achieving Something Out of Nothing through the Placebo Effect

AbstractThe purpose of the present paper is to critique the concept ‘placebo effect’ as applied in marketing. Most of the researches explain this concept largely by drawing on the expectancy and classical conditioning theories, which theories, together with the consideration of extrinsic and intrinsic product attributes, have largely shaped the price-quality relationship, hence the concept of placebo effect. A variety of literature, albeit not most recent, is reviewed from both the medical and marketing perspectives in order to create a rich expose. It is concluded that despite the ubiquity of price and consumers’ substantial experience with this attribute, a strong convergent support for the prediction that utility judgments are more precise and preferences are more stable, when price is considered as a proxy of quality. Future researches should transgress from expectations, beliefs and theories of conditioning to assessing how demand-related factors such as income, influence this phenomenon within the m...

Consumers’ Attitude to the Protest Against Lady Gaga’s Concert: An Exploratory Study

Lady gaga is an American singer who has won 5 Grammy Awards. In the middle of 2012, she was requested to have concert in Jakarta with the contract value of tens billion. The concert was protested by a number of groups. The promoter had approached the pressure groups and negotiated the dressing.However, Lady Gaga’s management canceled the concert for security consideration.The objectives of the studyare:(1) to explore consumers’ attitude to the protest for the cancelation of Lady Gaga’s concert; and (2) using classical conditioning and expectancy-value theory, to explain consumers’ attitude to the protest.The study used focus group to collect data. The collected data was then transcribed and analyzed by content analysis.The results show that informants’ opinions can be classified into two groups: agreement and disagreement with the protest for the cancelation of Lady Gaga’s concert. Informants either agree or disagree for some reasons. Classical conditioning theory can explain either consumer’s attitude. The difference is the object of consumers’ attitude who agreed was Lady Gaga herself, while the object of disagreement was the pressure group that sponsored the protest. The attitude of the disagreement can also be explained by expectancy-value theory. DOI : https://doi.org/10.21632/irjbs.6.3.149-169 Keywords: Protest, Classical Conditioning Model, Expectancy-Value Theory, Focus Group, Qualitative Content Analysis

Consumers' responses to sponsorship by foreign companies

Purpose – The study aims to explore the novel issue of how consumers perceive sponsorship initiatives by foreign companies and how the sponsors' country-of-origin (COO) cue may influence sponsorship outcomes. Design/methodology/approach – The measurement model and proposed relationships were tested based on a sample of 811 Chinese consumers using confirmatory factor analysis and structural path analysis. Findings – The results reveal that attitudes toward the sponsor completely mediate the effect of event involvement on willingness to buy from the sponsor (WBS). Attitudes toward the sponsor also partially mediate the relationship between economic animosity towards a specific sponsor's COO and WBS. Additionally, the level of a country's economic competitiveness found to moderate the negative relationship between economic animosity, attitudes toward the sponsor and WBS. Research limitations/implications – The nature of the product type and the desire of the consumer to own such a product may have influenced the measurement of willingness to buy. Practical implications – The research adds to the existing knowledge by identifying the opportunities and potential biases that a foreign company may encounter when considering sponsoring a mega sport event in a different cultural context. The study helps managers to understand how sports sponsorship could be used effectively in emerging markets. Originality/value – The proposed conceptual model advances the application of classical conditioning theory, the consumer animosity model of foreign product purchase and the belief-attitude-intention hierarchy in the sponsorship arena. It is the first investigation of the role of event involvement and economic animosity in understanding sponsorship responses.

Who Benefits from Multiple Brand Celebrity Endorsements? An Experimental Investigation

Advertisers commonly use celebrity endorsers to increase the effectiveness of advertising in persuading consumers. In many cases, these celebrities endorse more than one brand. Little is known, however, about the benefit to brands from these multiple endorsements by the same celebrity. This research applies classical conditioning theory to an exploration of multiple brand endorsements by a single celebrity, and examines how brand concept consistency between endorsed brands affects consumers’ evaluations of the endorsed brand. The findings, over two separate studies, indicate that exact and high concept consistency between endorsed brands positively influences consumers’ attitude toward these brands.

Slithering snakes, angry men and out-group members: What and whom are we evolved to fear?

The preparedness theory of classical conditioning proposed by Seligman (1970, 1971) has been applied extensively over the past 40 years to explain the nature and “source” of human fear and phobias. In this review we examine the formative studies that tested the four defining characteristics of prepared learning with animal fear-relevant stimuli (typically snakes and spiders) and consider claims that fear of social stimuli, such as angry faces, or faces of racial out-group members, may also be acquired utilising the same preferential learning mechanism. Exposition of critical differences between fear learning to animal and social stimuli suggests that a single account cannot adequately explain fear learning with animal and social stimuli. We demonstrate that fear conditioned to social stimuli is less robust than fear conditioned to animal stimuli as it is susceptible to cognitive influence and propose that it may instead reflect on negative stereotypes and social norms. Thus, a theoretical model that can accommodate the influence of both biological and cultural factors is likely to have broader utility in the explanation of fear and avoidance responses than accounts based on a single mechanism.

Neurobiological mechanisms underlying the blocking effect in aversive learning.

Current theories of classical conditioning assume that learning depends on the predictive relationship between events, not just on their temporal contiguity. Here we employ the classic experiment substantiating this reasoning-the blocking paradigm-in combination with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate whether human amygdala responses in aversive learning conform to these assumptions. In accordance with blocking, we demonstrate that significantly stronger behavioral and amygdala responses are evoked by conditioned stimuli that are predictive of the unconditioned stimulus than by conditioned stimuli that have received the same pairing with the unconditioned stimulus, yet have no predictive value. When studying the development of this effect, we not only observed that it was related to the strength of previous conditioned responses, but also that predictive compared with nonpredictive conditioned stimuli received more overt attention, as measured by fMRI-concurrent eye tracking, and that this went along with enhanced amygdala responses. We furthermore observed that prefrontal regions play a role in the development of the blocking effect: ventromedial prefrontal cortex (subgenual anterior cingulate) only exhibited responses when conditioned stimuli had to be established as nonpredictive for an outcome, whereas dorsolateral prefrontal cortex also showed responses when conditioned stimuli had to be established as predictive. Most importantly, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex connectivity to amygdala flexibly switched between positive and negative coupling, depending on the requirements posed by predictive relationships. Together, our findings highlight the role of predictive value in explaining amygdala responses and identify mechanisms that shape these responses in human fear conditioning.

Exploring a latent cause theory of classical conditioning

We frame behavior in classical conditioning experiments as the product of normative statistical inference. According to this theory, animals learn an internal model of their environment from experience. The basic building blocks of this internal model are latent causes-explanatory constructs inferred by the animal that partition observations into coherent clusters. Generalization of conditioned responding from one cue to another arises from the animal's inference that the cues were generated by the same latent cause. Through a wide range of simulations, we demonstrate where the theory succeeds and where it fails as a general account of classical conditioning.

Hard-sell and Soft-sell Advertising Appeals with a 'Polysemic' Difference: A Purposeful Advertising Polysemy Perspective

In our study, the primary research goal is to compare and contrast the effectiveness of three advertising appeals and strategies (hard-sell, soft-sell, and polysemy) and the roles played by these different appeals in our global society. The research explores the concept of polysemy and the generation of idiosyncratic meanings along with hard-sell and soft-sell advertising appeals. It also investigates the impact of these appeals on the African-American target population. The research proposes and measures the 'Advertising Polysemy and Hard-Soft Sell' conceptual framework supported by classical conditioning theory, the dual mediation hypothesis framework, and the presence of primary affective reactions, leading to stronger ad-evoked feelings, ad and brand cognitions, ad and brand attitudes, and purchase intentions. The research presents marketing and societal implications of using advertising appeals and strategies with a special focus on African-American society.

The impact of the reward duration on the associative strength in classical conditioning of harnessed honeybees (Apis mellifera)

Event Abstract Back to Event The impact of the reward duration on the associative strength in classical conditioning of harnessed honeybees (Apis mellifera) Kathrin Marter1* and Dorothea Eisenhardt1 1 Freie Universität Berlin, Neurobiology, Germany The term associative strength describes the extent to which the conditioned stimulus (CS) predicts the reward (unconditioned stimulus, US). It is generally accepted that the associative strength is mirrored in the conditioned response (CR) during acquisition (Rescorla & Wagner, 1972). A recent study in honeybees (Apis mellifera) demonstrates a correlation between the US duration during classical conditioning and the susceptibility of a long-term extinction memory for protein synthesis-inhibition (Stollhoff & Eisenhardt, 2009, J. Neurosc.). This study suggests that the associative strength depends on the duration of the US. However, a correlation between the CR and the US duration during acquisition was not observed. This might be due to the fact, that only the occurrence of a CR was recorded (proboscis extension: yes or no) resulting in dichotomous data. Here, we asked whether quantifying the CR by electrophysiological recordings of a muscle responsible for proboscis extension, uncovers the effect of the reward duration on the associative strength during acquisition and memory retention. References Rescorla R.A., and Wagner A.R. (1972). A theory of classical conditioning: variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and non-reinforcement. in: Classical conditioning II: current research and theory, ed. A.H. Black, W.F. Prokasy (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts), 64-99. Stollhoff, N., and Eisenhardt, D. (2009). Consolidation of an extinction memory depends on the unconditioned stimulus magnitude previously experienced during training. J. Neurosci. 29, 9644-9650. Keywords: associative strength, Honeybee, Learning and plasticity, Memory, Reward Learning Conference: BC11 : Computational Neuroscience & Neurotechnology Bernstein Conference & Neurex Annual Meeting 2011, Freiburg, Germany, 4 Oct - 6 Oct, 2011. Presentation Type: Poster Topic: learning and plasticity (please use "learning and plasticity" as keyword) Citation: Marter K and Eisenhardt D (2011). The impact of the reward duration on the associative strength in classical conditioning of harnessed honeybees (Apis mellifera). Front. Comput. Neurosci. Conference Abstract: BC11 : Computational Neuroscience & Neurotechnology Bernstein Conference & Neurex Annual Meeting 2011. doi: 10.3389/conf.fncom.2011.53.00165 Copyright: The abstracts in this collection have not been subject to any Frontiers peer review or checks, and are not endorsed by Frontiers. They are made available through the Frontiers publishing platform as a service to conference organizers and presenters. The copyright in the individual abstracts is owned by the author of each abstract or his/her employer unless otherwise stated. Each abstract, as well as the collection of abstracts, are published under a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 (attribution) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) and may thus be reproduced, translated, adapted and be the subject of derivative works provided the authors and Frontiers are attributed. For Frontiers’ terms and conditions please see https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions. Received: 22 Aug 2011; Published Online: 04 Oct 2011. * Correspondence: Mrs. Kathrin Marter, Freie Universität Berlin, Neurobiology, Berlin, 14195, Germany, Kathrin_Marter@web.de Login Required This action requires you to be registered with Frontiers and logged in. To register or login click here. Abstract Info Abstract The Authors in Frontiers Kathrin Marter Dorothea Eisenhardt Google Kathrin Marter Dorothea Eisenhardt Google Scholar Kathrin Marter Dorothea Eisenhardt PubMed Kathrin Marter Dorothea Eisenhardt Related Article in Frontiers Google Scholar PubMed Abstract Close Back to top Javascript is disabled. Please enable Javascript in your browser settings in order to see all the content on this page.

Bases psiconeurofisiológicas do fenômeno placebo-nocebo: evidências científicas que valorizam a humanização da relação médico-paciente

Aspect quite valued in the medical systems of all of the times, the doctor-patient relationship assumed secondary importance in the current biomedical model, depriving the modern therapeutic arsenal of a psyconeurophisiological intervention capable to complement the resolution of many organic disturbances. With the intention of rescuing this and other benefits, countless proposed by the humanization of the medicine have been appearing in the several sections of the health, remaining to scientific thought accept that this subjective relational increment can increase the effectiveness of the conventional treatments. Working as sensitization element, the recent experimental studies illustrate the possible benefits or harms that a doctor-patient relationship more or less humanized can provoke in the evolution of the diseases. Uniting the theories of classical conditioning and conscious expectation, the researches suggest that the doctor's posture, permeated by positive or negative manifestations (comments, suggestions, attitudes etc.), it can exercise similar influences in the patients' psyche, unchaining favorable or unfavorable neurophysiologic answers, acting as therapeutic or iatrogenic instrument, respectively.

Advertising in the Age of TiVo: Targeting Teens and Young Adults With Film and Television Product Placements

Product placement in film and television is examined as a growing force in transmitting brand messages to hard-to-reach consumers-especially teens and young adults who use new technologies to tune out commercials. Although many scholars have scrutinized product placement's cognitive effects on mass media audiences—and critiqued impacts of consumer culture—few have examined how marketers apply classical conditioning theory. Interviews were conducted with global brand managers who have placed their brands in blockbuster films and highly rated television programs in recent years. Initial findings suggest that marketers predict increased attention to product placement and a redefinition of advertising space.

A biologically based model of the two-phase theory of classical conditioning: the amygdala, auditory cortex and cerebellum

Event Abstract Back to Event A biologically based model of the two-phase theory of classical conditioning: the amygdala, auditory cortex and cerebellum Andrea Giovannucci1*, Ivan Herreros-Alonso1, Lukas Zimmerli2 and Paul Verschure3 1 SPECS, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Spain 2 HOKOMA, Switzerland 3 SPECS. IUA. UPF and ICREA, Spain The Polish psychologist Konorski has proposed in the early 1960ies that the associative processes underlying classical conditioning can be separated in a fast non-specific learning systems (NLS) and a slow specific one (SLS). In earlier work we have successfully individually modeled the roles of the amygdala, basal forebrain and auditory cortex (AC) as an example of NLS and the cerebellum (CE) as a model of SLS [1,2] . Here we provide a complete account of Konorski’s proposal by integrating these two systems and thus provide the first complete biologically-grounded computational model of the two-phase theory of conditioning. AC learning has been simulated using a biophysically realistic learning rule, where neuron’s plasticity is controlled locally by a spike-time dependent learning rule (STDP). The occurrence of a unconditioned stimulus (US), signaled by a burst of activity in the model amygdala/nucleus basalis, switches a bigger fraction of synapses in the A1 into a plastic mode. As a result CS representations are enlarged, thus resulting in a higher global response to a CS stimulus at the level of the cerebellum, CS and US once more converge. Coincidence of these signals induce LTD at the level of the parallel fiber - Purkinje cell (PU) synapse. Due to this LTD the PU will cease to fire disinhibiting the neurons of the model deep cerebellar nucleus (DN), triggering a conditioned response (CR) that is matched to the experimental interstimulus interval (ISI). Putting together both models requires solving the process of information transmission between the NLS and the SLS. The output of the AC comprises a continuous flow of information, whereas for our CE model to learn, a CS must be signaled by a discrete burst of activity. We investigate the hypothesis that the suitable transformation can be performed by the granule cells: 1) the mossy fibre-granule synapse acts as a filter allowing to pass only high amplitude signals [3] . 2) the tonic and spillover inhibition observed in the CE [4] are used to interrupt the information flow as soon as some action potentials are generated in direction to the PU. The whole computational model is tested with simulated conditioning experiments and its real-time performance and ecological validity is tested using robot object avoidance tasks where the US is signaled with a particular tone and the CR is expressed as an obstacle dependent modification in the robot’s trajectory.

Experimental challenges to theories of classical conditioning: Application of an attentional model of storage and retrieval.

Several studies have recently challenged the accuracy of traditional models of classical conditioning that account for some experimental data in terms of a storage deficit. Among other results, it has been reported that extinction of the blocking or overshadowing stimulus results in the recovery of the response to the blocked or overshadowed stimulus, backward blocking shows spontaneous recovery, extinction of the training context results in the recovery from latent inhibition, interposing a delay between conditioning and testing in latent inhibition increases latent inhibition, and latent inhibition antagonizes overshadowing. An existing neural network model of classical conditioning (N. A. Schmajuk, Y. Lam, & J. A. Gray, 1996), which includes an attentional mechanism controlling both storage and retrieval of associations, is able to quantitatively describe these results.

Amygdaloid GABA, not glutamate neurotransmission or mRNA transcription controls footshock-associated fear arousal in the acoustic startle paradigm

In Pavlovian conditioning the fear-evoking properties of the aversive unconditioned stimulus are represented by the conditioned stimulus. A major challenge for theories of classical fear conditioning has been to understand how associations are formed between a conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus. Although the cellular mechanisms in the amygdala that underlie fear learning have received considerable attention relatively little is known about the neural substrates underlying unconditioned stimulus-associated fear. In the present study we examined the role of GABA A, N-methyl- d-aspartic acid and non- N-methyl- d-aspartic acid receptors, and protein synthesis inhibition on the immediate fear arousal produced by footshock as measured by the shock sensitization of acoustic startle. Laboratory rats showed shock-enhanced startle after infusion into the basolateral amygdala of the N-methyl- d-aspartic acid receptor antagonist d(−)-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid (5.0μg), the non- N-methyl- d-aspartic acid receptor antagonist 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione disodium (5.0μg) and the protein synthesis inhibitor anisomycin (80.0μg). We concluded that fear arousal provoked by footshock is not mediated by glutamate neurotransmission in the amygdala and does not involve de novo protein synthesis. Bilateral infusion into the basolateral amygdala of the GABA A receptor agonist muscimol in doses ranging from 0.001–0.5μg reliably blocked the shock sensitization of acoustic startle responding. None of the muscimol doses altered shock reactivity amplitudes indicating the normal perception of footshock. The muscimol results were interpreted to suggest that decreased GABA neurotransmission in the amygdala may be essential for the neural causation of fear that is acquired and expressed by conditioned stimuli.

Psychobiological Theories of Smoking and Smoking Motivation

Abstract. Theories of smoking have been developed about the conditions and causes of smoking as well as for explaining its maintenance. Moreover, factors of smoking motivation have been identified, which describe incentives to smoke and types of smoking behavior. The most frequently reported motives are psychosocial smoking, sensorimotor smoking, indulgent smoking, stimulation smoking, sedation smoking, dependent smoking, and automatic smoking. In the first phase after the start of smoking, psychosocial smoking is the dominating motive, which is best represented by theories of social psychology. Sensorimotor smoking may be best explained by theories of classical and operant conditioning. Indulgent smoking (= smoking for pleasure) may be explained by neurochemical theories and by the neurobiological theories of dependence emphasizing nicotine-induced activation of mesolimbic dopaminergic reinforcement. Stimulation smoking and sedation smoking are related to arousal models. Moreover, sedation smoking is also explained by aspects of reducing negative affect (as claimed by theories of affect regulation) and by biochemical theories emphasizing serotonergic mechanisms in modulating anxiety as well as by theories of dependence. Dependent smoking, which is mostly based on negative reinforcement (suppression of withdrawal symptoms) may be explained by neurochemical theories as well as by neurobiological theories of psychological and physical dependence explaining blunted dopaminergic and serotonergic responsivity as due to desensitization of respective receptors. Also automatic smoking may be explained by processes of habit learning and neurobiological theories of dependence. Finally, personality theories have been applied to all of these smoking motives.

The Making or Faking of Emotionally Significant Brands

The popularity of 'Emotional Branding' and of ESP (Emotional Selling Proposition) was often based on the erroneous assumption that emotions can be simply 'glued' to brands by means of advertising. This assumption originated in the Classical Conditioning theory (you will recall Ivan Pavlov and his experiments with the salivating dogs). Today, this theory is largely obsolete, and thus abandoned as a means for modeling the human attribution of emotional significance. The unfortunate result of branding efforts based on these assumptions was the ineffectiveness of many branding campaigns. In other words, this kind of Emotional Branding is faking rather than making emotionally significant brands. It creates look-alikes. The symbolizations, the advertising, the packaging may evoke emotions and impress the untrained eye, but the brand will lack genuine feel appeal to its target consumers. In the e-booklet downloadable from this site, I set out to present a comprehensive account of why and how brands become (and can be designed to be) desirable even irresistible and achieve emotional significance. This summary outlines the approach in brief but please be aware that most of the theoretical buildup is beyond its scope and that it excludes the many practical guidelines and tips you can find in the e-booklet.

When prolonged exposure fails: Adding an imagery-based cognitive restructuring component in the treatment of industrial accident victims suffering from PTSD

Prolonged exposure (PE) is a widely promulgated treatment modality for PTSD. While successful with many subjects, PE also has a significant failure rate (i.e., dropouts, nonimprovement, symptom exacerbation). To date, outcome research has not examined why PE at times appears to be the treatment of choice for PTSD and why it sometimes needs to be combined with cognitive restructuring interventions to be effective. This study presents a detailed cognitive-behavioral analysis of two industrial victims suffering from PTSD who failed to benefit from PE alone, but who subsequently made a quick and lasting recovery when an imagery-based, cognitive restructuring component was added to their exposure treatment. A comparative analysis is presented of the theoretical underpinnings and treatment components of the behavioral and cognitive treatments used with the subjects in this study—PE and imagery rescripting and reprocessing therapy (IRRT). PE is a behavioral treatment based upon theories of classical conditioning that relies on exposure, habituation, desensitization, and extinction to facilitate emotional processing of fear. By contrast, IRRT is cognitive therapy applied in the context of imagery modification. In IRRT, exposure is employed not for habituation, but for activating the trauma memory so that the distressing cognitions (i.e., the trauma-related images and beliefs) can be identified, challenged, modified, and processed.

Early oviposition experience affects patch residence time in a foraging parasitoid

AbstractParasitoids learn olfactory and visual cues that are associated with their hosts, and use these cues to forage more efficiently. Classical conditioning theory predicts that encounters with high‐quality hosts will lead to better learning of host‐associated cues than encounters with low‐quality hosts. We tested this prediction in a two‐phase laboratory experiment with the parasitoid Trichogramma thalense Pinto & Oatman (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) and the host Anagasta kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae).Host quality during the first exposure to hosts affected later foraging behavior for some experimental treatments, as predicted. We used a learning model, followed by patch‐time optimization, to interpret our findings. We first simulated the parasitoids' host encounters during the experiment, and predicted their estimate of patch quality after each encounter. We then used dynamic optimization to predict the parasitoids' optimal patch residence times. The model reproduces the trends of the experimental results.

Persistent symptoms among survivors of Hodgkin's disease: An explanatory model based on classical conditioning.

Persistent symptoms of nausea, distress, and vomiting triggered by reminders of cancer treatment were examined among 273 Hodgkin's disease survivors, 1 to 20 years posttreatment. Prevalence rates were high for distress and nausea but low for vomiting. Retrospective report of anticipatory symptoms during treatment was the strongest predictor of persistent symptoms, suggesting that treatment-induced symptoms are less likely to persist if conditioning does not occur initially. Time since treatment was also a significant predictor, with patients more recently treated more likely to experience persistent symptoms. Thus, an explanatory model based on classical conditioning theory successfully predicted presence of persistent symptoms. Symptoms also were associated with ongoing psychological distress, suggesting that quality of life is diminished among survivors with persistent symptoms. Recommendations for prevention and treatment of symptoms are discussed.

The role of traumatic experiences in the genesis of obsessive–compulsive disorder

This paper discusses the role of traumatic stress in the genesis of obsessive–compulsive disorder. While the early classical conditioning theory of the onset of obsessive–compulsive disorder has only limited empirical support, authorities have always recognised the role of stress in precipitating this disorder, and in triggering relapse in those who have been successfully treated. Here, clinical cases are cited that show a causal link between severe trauma and the onset of obsessive–compulsive disorder. The nature of the traumatic reaction and the possible mechanisms by which it leads to frank obsessive–compulsive disorder are discussed. The apparent links between this and posttraumatic stress disorder are also explored. Finally, implications for therapy are considered.