Classical Sociology Research Articles

On the Sociology of Law in Economic Relations

A focus on law’s role in economic activities was central to many of the classical sociologists, and it remains a key theme in the sociology of law, although no longer central. The view of capitalism as a market economy is reflected in formalist perspectives on economics, law and even sociology, and limits these understandings. Economic sociologists and institutional economists have examined the extensive institutionalisation of economic activity due to the shift to corporate capitalism since the last part of the 19th century, and have focused on law’s role in these processes. The neo-liberal phase of capitalism since the 1970s brought a renewed emphasis on property rights and market-based management, but accompanied by an enormous growth of new forms of regulation, often of a hybrid public-private character, leading to a new view of law as reflective or responsive, very different from traditional formalist perspectives. We argue that law’s role in the economy can be better understood by examining the social processes of lawyering, mediating between the realms of political and economic power, through practices of legal interpretation that both reflect and shape economic activity.

CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE CONCEPTS OF “CAREER” AND “CAREER STRATEGIES” IN THE WORKS OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC SOCIOLOGISTS

Problem setting. The development of society is constant. New technologies require the formation of skills that affect both professional and domestic activities of people. Employers seek to select employees who will be interested in their professional activities, which will contribute to the personal development of the individual and will have a positive impact on the work of the enterprise.
 Recent research and publications analysis. In the works of sociologists, the process of self-development of the individual, which contributes to his promotion by professional ladder, is defined as a "career". The analysis of literature sources shows that over time, the interpretation of this concept changes somewhat, acquires new approaches, but its conceptual essence, however, is not definitively defined. 
 Paper objective. This article aims to define the conceptual meaning of the concepts of “career” and “career strategies” based on the definitions proposed by researchers from different eras.
 Paper main body. The analysis allowed to identify two main conceptual approaches to the concept of “career”, according to which the conceptual essence of career is the individual’s desire for professional self-development, which is reflected in his professional activities, on the one hand, and on the other, life - this is a career, so the standard of living and success directly depend on the level of activity of the individual, his desire to develop.
 Career strategy is a model of behavior that an individual chooses during professional growth. The literature offers many variations of this definition and classification of models of career strategies, but the most complete and generalized is the classification proposed by E. Shane and the conceptual essence of the concept of “career strategy” is reduced to a conscious choice of behavior by the individual both in the professional sphere and in life in general. Sociological research shows that the model of career strategy is a direct reflection of the behavior and lifestyle of the individual in his professional activities, which affects and determines the rate of career growth.
 Conclusions of the research. Analysis of scientific publications and scientific works allows to characterize the term “career”, in a conceptual sense, in two perspectives, the first of which is formed on the basis of definitions proposed by the classics of sociology, and characterizes it as a process of professional growth. and from another point of view, which is defined by both foreign and domestic sociologists of the twentieth century, life is a career, it is a continuous movement in a certain direction of professional and personal growth. “Career strategy”, according to the generalized definitions, is a model of an individual's behavior during his movement up the career ladder, which determines the speed of the individual’s development, the ability to succeed in his career and personal life.

Риски концентрации власти в эпоху искусственного интеллекта: между следящим капитализмом и цифровым Левиафаном

В статье рассмотрен феномен роста влияния лидеров IT-индустрии, предпринята попытка анализа этого явления. Описаны технологические особенности платформенной архитектуры, способствующие концентрации власти в руках крупнейших концернов информационного рынка. Обрисована бизнес-модель большой пятерки GAFAM, истолкованная в качестве ключевого источника власти цифровых гигантов. Представлено описание качественного отличия цифрового капитализма начала XXI века от индустриального капитализма прошедшего столетия. Изложены подходы критики цифрового капитализма, опирающиеся на опыт критических теорий классиков социологии. Рассмотрены принципы выстраивания отношений государственных структур с IT-индустрией с точки зрения баланса и концентрации власти, освещены авторитарные и демократические варианты взаимодействия.

Collecting to the Core — Classics of Sociology

Collecting to the Core — Classics of Sociology

Stop evaluating science: A historical-sociological argument

Although science has been a formidably successful force of social and technological development in the modern era, and a main reason for the wealth and well-being of current societies compared to previous times, a fundamental distrust characterizes its current status in society. According to prevalent discourse, science is insufficiently productive and in need of stricter governance and bureaucratic management, with performance evaluation by the means of quantitative metrics as a key tool to increase efficiency. The basis of this notion appears to be a belief that the key or only purpose of science is to drive economic growth, or sustainable development in combination with economic growth. In this article, these beliefs are analyzed and deconstructed with the help of a theoretical toolbox from the classic sociology of science and recent conceptualizations of economization, democratization, and commodification of scientific knowledge and the institution of science, connecting these beliefs to broader themes of market fundamentalism and to the metric fixation of current society. With the help of a historical-sociological analysis, this article shows that the current ubiquity of performance evaluation in science for the most part is pointless and counterproductive, and that this state of science policy is in dire need of reevaluation in order to secure science’s continued productivity and contribution to social and technological innovation.

NIKLAS LUHMANN’S SOCIAL SYSTEMS THEORY: THE ISSUE OF SUBSYSTEM AUTONOMY

Niklas Luhmann articulates the basic elements of his authentic theoretical position as criticism of, as he calls them, classical sociology or classical organisation theory. While within these orientations, (social) systems are mainly interpreted as centralised entities whose structures are stabilised by purpose determined at the top, Luhmann, in his general theory of social systems privileges internal differentiation in which subsystems autonomously define their purposes, making society more flexible and capable of responding to environmental challenges. In that sense, the main intention of this paper is the creation of cognitive interest for the notions of complexity and flexibility, i.e. for the issue of subsystem autonomy, as the important elements of Luhmann’s general theory of social systems. Our premise is that the establishment of subsystem autonomy is not a matter of mere, a priori, theoretical and/or practical arbitrariness, nor does it mean an introduction into deconstruction of the system, but it represents a necessary step in the creation of successful responses of the social system to problems arising from the immense and dynamic complexity of its own environment. In other words, through the process of internal differentiation, by establishing subsystem autonomy, the social system increases its own complexity, i.e. ability to adjust to the environment. Thus, challenges arising from the environment are not transferred to the whole, but localised and processed in the appropriate, autonomous parts of the system. By so increasing its internal complexity, the system undeniably acquires the necessary flexibility, or capability for a faster and more efficient creation of alternative.

Sociology and Military Studies: Broadening the Perspective, Using the Classics

В статье демонстрируется возможность использовать наработки классической социологии для изучения различных аспектов современной военной социологии, особенно вопросов субстанциальной рациональности. В качестве примера приводится Георг Зиммель, взгляды которого на положение человека в социальных группах, динамику конфликта, доверие и положение «чужого» могут оказаться полезными в социологических исследованиях функционирования и действий вооруженных сил. Автор призывает к развитию военной социологии, более детально изучающей операционную сторону вооруженных сил, принимая во внимание интересы всех вовлеченных в военный конфликт сторон.

The Culture of ”Crossroads”: the Emergency of Blues as a Countercultural Declaration

Introduction. Apart from classical academic musicology, sociology, social anthropology and related disciplines such as sociolinguistics, philology, and cultural studies contributed to the development of research of music and its role in social, interpersonal relations, and individual experiences. The aim of this research is to investigate musical and singing traditions within the context of social relations, historical challenges, and sub-cultures by sociological and social anthropological approaches. In the last decades these research is of relevance for scholars interested in creativity and creative individuals whose impact effect is ambient in current social and political processes. The main tradition can be approached as a socio-cultural phenomenon emerging in the form of sub-culture.Methodology and sources. Methodological b ackground o f t his r esearch i s o f s tructuralfunctional character. Within this framework art and creativity can be approached by various sets of research techniques. Culture of music can be studies both as an object and as a text; hence, textual and contextual approaches are of significance. In result, we can discover reasons motivating people to influence social relations and preconceptions within certain groups and societies. This approach allows the analysis the connections between individual and collective perceptions of people regarding their identities and place in a society. Finally, not only music shapes the context of sociolultural phenomena, but it is the context itself per se. For this paper I used texts and bibliographic data of singers such as follows: Son House, Robert Johnson, Skip James, William Samuel McTell, Edward W. Clayborn.Results and discussion. The analysis of social history of blues in the end of the nineteenth and in the beginning of the twentieth centuries as well as biographies of bluesmen along with the texts of their songs clearly demonstrates poetic motifs, individual and social reflections of different communities. The images such as love and flirt, manqué love, rest from hard work, roads, railways, trains, abandoned home with simultaneous lack of home, prison, illness, death and cemetery as well as the demonstration of all the listed images by socially oriented creativity in music, represents deep forms of marginality of those who sing it out in front of respected citizens living normal lives.Conclusion. The material scrutinized in this paper clearly shoes that blues as a genre of music along with bluesmen who are representatives of a certain sub-culture, constitute a coherent social system which can be characterized a s a c ounter-culture. This social and cultural phenomenon in a way we encounter it derived from marginal status of its representatives. This marginal status becomes visible in blues as emotion and soulreflection to a large degree contradictory to the idea of respectable citizens and so-called “right way of life”.

E-culture of Russian students: Socio-cultural differentiation

Electronic culture constitutes a new form of social adjustment in the digital era. Our study aims to reveal socio-cultural differentiation in the social group of Russian students whose e-culture is being shaped. Moscow students became our test group. To achieve the research aim we analyzed the concept of “e-culture” focusing on its theoretical and methodological interpretations. The paper provides an overview of current approaches to understanding electronic culture, namely competence- and activity-based approaches, axiological and institutional ones. Cultural studies of classical sociology served as theoretical and methodological basis for our applied research. Sociological approach enables to reveal the position of e-culture in modern society and detect its differentiating action on everyday practices and value system of distinct social groups. Thus, we suggest that we should extend our applied sociological study of students’ e-culture by using a significant indicator, i.e. reflective-axiological attitude towards electronic technologies. We surveyed students of Russian universities and can now conclude that students from different test groups shape their e-culture at their own pace. Reflective-axiological attitude to ICT exerts a significant impact on e-culture formation; due to operational thinking technical students shape their critical reflective attitudes faster than non-technical ones. Most young adults today are common users, which suggests low demand for ICT in educational and professional areas where young people are actively involved. Youth socialization employs traditional forms of information culture, for example, book culture.

Classical, Modern and Postmodern Sociological Thought: A Debate

Classical, Modern and Postmodern Sociological Thought: A Debate

ON THE ISSUE OF THE FUNCTIONAL THEORY OF ELITES: LOSSES AND POSSIBILITIES OF A NEW APPROACH

The article examines the prerequisites for reinterpreting the concept of "elite" at the turn of the XX–XXI centuries. The author analyzes the need to change the concept of the elite as a factor of social practice, investigates the prerequisites for a retreat from the traditions of interpreting the elite in the problem field of classical sociology. The thesis about the fruitfulness of the study of the elite in the discourse of such trends of its development as sociologization, rationalization, and subjectivation is outlined. The explanatory potential of the functional and functionalist concepts of the elites is compared.

Max Weber and Modernity: modernization, rationalization, legitimation

The paper reveals the features of sociological theorizing offered by classical sociology, including M. Weber's concept. The thematic directions that became central to the German scholar's sociology are identified: modernization, rationalization, legitimization, etc.; their genesis is analyzed from the point of view of the philosophical (Baden School of Neo-Kantianism) and sociological (G. Simmel's concept of cultural forms) studios. It is emphasized that rationalization, which was first considered by M. Weber, becomes a cross-cutting theme in sociology up to the end of the twentieth century. Further development of the concept of rationalization takes place within the communicative turn, associated with the name of J. Habermas. The concept of constructing the social, taking into account the meaning that the author puts into his actions, becomes the first attempt of theoretical synthesis in the process of overcoming the methodological crisis in sociological science. M. Weber's sociology offers a departure from the "container approach" in the analysis of society, which was later realized within the world-systemic (A. G. Frank, I. Wallerstein, J. Arrighi, etc.) and synthetic (M. Archer, P. Bourdieu, E. Giddens, P. Sztompka, etc.) concepts. The problematic of a bureaucratization, formulated by M. Weber in the early twentieth century to describe the processes of formation of the modern state, acquires new relevance today in connection with the expansion of the "bureaucratic spirit" to commercial enterprises, built according to the network logic. The tendencies of (self-)management on the part of employees, which are accelerating due to the transition to the remote form of work. The author shows how processes of legitimation, which are necessary for the perception of changes in professional activity, simultaneously contribute to the fragmentation and disintegration of local social spaces.

O Regresso da natureza nas ciências humanas e sociais?

Este paper busca investigar qual a relação entre a abordagem sobre os fenômenos da natureza na Sociologia clássica de Karl Marx, Émile Durkheim e Max Weber e os seus principais conceitos sociológicos. Mediante o cenário do Antropoceno, surgido no início do século XXI, no qual a ação humana sobre a Terra foi evidenciada, as questões geosociais passaram a fundamentar uma nova ontologia em contraposição à ontologia que deu base à “questão social” dos autores clássicos da ciência sociológica, fato que influenciou vários cientistas, sobretudo das humanas e sociais, a uma reavaliação dos seus campos de estudo, destacando a partir de então os entrecruzamentos entre homem e natureza. Neste sentido, objetiva-se avaliar até que ponto a chamada “questão social” dos autores clássicos da Sociologia científica estava de fato restrita apenas aos aspectos humanos e se ela possuía algo de “geo” em sua construção teórica e conceitual. Por meio de uma história dos conceitos, no qual iremos proceder pela articulação entre conceitos diferentes com vistas a buscar identificar as proximidades e os distanciamentos, iremos articular a análise dos principais conceitos sociológicos aos conceitos sobre a relação homem-natureza. O perscrutar da pesquisa evidencia que os autores da Sociologia clássica não só atribuíram ação a objetos e fenômenos naturais quanto também apontaram determinadas “intervenções” destes no social, ainda que este seja por eles definido como algo estritamente humano. Observa-se, neste sentido, uma ambiguidade caracterizada pelo fato de que a natureza nunca foi por eles expulsa da (co)existência humana, ainda que tenha sido expulsa (do conceito de social) a partir da ontologia que deu base às suas obras.

Ancient Judaism and Its Sociological Analysis. A Classical Perspective

The scientific analysis concerning Jewish history is a challenging task from the point of view of human studies, especially for those concerned with the spiritual uniqueness of a community that marked European history and culture. Here, we try to benefit from the contribution of Max Weber, and his research of Ancient Judaism, a major work written at the height of his sociological thinking, viewed in the mirror with the French sociology, marked by a functionalist perspective over social world, using the study of Antonin Causse. In the end, we try the weidening of classical sociology with Eric Voegelin’s philosophical perspective, for which the order of history begins with Israel and Revelation. Thus, it can be said that starting from a sociology of immanence it could be forseen a sociology of transcendence, through a perspective that asserts the axial role of spiritual identity in understanding people and their history throught religious manifestations.

Kritický realismus Revisited: Příspěvek k sociologické teorii subjektivity

This paper develops the sociological conception of subjectivity, which recognizes the key role of cultural and linguistic meanings in social life. J. Šubrt’s concept of “duplex” could help to overcome the theoretical dilemma between individualism (subjectivism) and holism (objectivism) in sociology. This concept is inspired by the critical realism of I. A. Bláha and takes into account perspectives from the philosophy of language, phenomenology, the classical sociology of G. H. Mead, and the contemporary critical realism of M. Archer. The focus of the duplex concept is the interactive and procedural nature of meanings (mental representations). The argument in favour of the interactive and pluralistic conception of the subject of social events derives from this attribute of meaning.

RELIGION IN THE THEORIES OF CLASSICAL SOCIOLOGY

As the science about society, from its very beginning, sociology has dealt with religion and its importance and function in a society. Social events and changes that have taken place in the area of Europe have contributed to bringing religion in the focus of many scholars, which shows that in the overall history of humankind it has been one of the unavoidable research topics. This research aimed at showing how classical sociologists (Comte, Marx, Durkheim and Weber) approached the phenomenon of religion. The stances of the aforementioned scholars are presented by the means of a method of theoretical analysis. The findings indicate that all scholars approach the phenomenon of religion differently. Thus, for instance Comte, as a founder of sociology, embodies a positivist discourse through which he promotes the universal theory of religion. Unlike his contemporaries, Durkheim, claims that religion is an unavoidable society factor and that it presents an essential condition for social integration. Contrary to Durkheim, Marx argues that religion is the alienation and opium of the ruling masses who use it to establish balance. Weber, adopting a systematic sociology approach to religion, analyses comparatively religious and social behavior, and claims that religion is a radical response to specific life situations.

Development of pre-class society in the evolutionist interpretation

The article aims at systematization of approaches to understanding the evolution of pre-class society in historical sociology. The sociological tradition of interpreting the history of pre-class society developed in the late 18th century, when A. Ferguson defined the development of society as a natural process consisting of three stages: savagery, barbarism, and civilization. In classic sociology, there were two approaches to understanding the pre-class society evolution. The first approach is presented in the works of H. Spencer, who suggested a natural-scientific interpretation of social evolution but with a more elaborated scale of the development of pre-class societies - as differing by the complexity of their social structure. The second approach is presented in the research of L.H. Morgan, who used Fergusons three-stage periodization as a basis but expanded the list of fundamental criteria for their differentiation (progress in inventions and discoveries, ideas of management, family and property). In the middle of the 20th century, sociology managed to overcome its dependence on psychology and economics by neo-evolutionism that linked social evolution of the archaic society with qualitative changes in its structure. Sociologists proposed schemes for the evolution of pre-class society based on the empirical evidence of its complexity - institutionalization of leadership and increasing social inequality. Moreover, sociologists included the level of labor productivity achieved in the archaic society into the list of criteria for its development, which determined a single scale of progress even for societies with other types of social organization. After debates, sociologists came to the conclusion that the evolution of pre-class societies is determined not only by their development but also by their degradation and even collapse; that all social systems can have analogues with a comparable level of complexity; and that a certain level of social organization can be achieved by different evolutionary paths.

Simmelian Elements in Raymond Boudon’s General Theory of Rationality

Raymond Boudon (1934–2013) developed his own general theory of rationality as an extension and original synthesis of the work already provided by classical sociology and rational choice theory. To achieve this, he had to interpret and reinterpret many classical authors and schools of thought. One classical author that inspired Boudon’s theory was German sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918). The following article seeks to delineate the particular Simmelian influences that can be found in Raymond Boudon’s theoretical work.

La comprensión sociológica de Marianne Schnitger sobre la ciudad: debate implícito con Max Weber y Georg Simmel sobre lo público y lo privado

El estudio de la ciudad moderna, en la Sociología Clásica, ha sido un punto de inflexión para comprender la transición de la comunidad tradicional a la sociedad moderna. Particularmente, Max Weber y Georg Simmel aportaron marcos comprensivos sobre los cambios de una racionalidad tradicional hacia una racionalidad orientada a fines, así como también la transformación de las formas de socialización en las grandes ciudades. La ciudad representa entonces, un diagnóstico de la modernidad relevante en la construcción de la Sociología. Sin embargo, es necesario incluir la participación de Marianne Schnitger en este diagnóstico y debate tanto con Simmel y Weber. Si bien ella no escribió directamente sobre la ciudad, no se debe soslayar su aportación al tema de la distinción entre lo público y privado, las emociones y sentimientos y la dimensión ética entre la calle y la casa. Marianne tuvo como escenario a Berlín, y desde ahí discutirá la subjetividad de la mujer y su relación con lo masculino, la ética y las emociones. En este texto analizo los argumentos convergentes y divergentes que sobre la ciudad tuvieron tanto Weber, Simmel y Schnitger a partir de conceptos similares que habrán de contribuir a la teoría sociológica clásica.

La historia de la Sociología: si no te la contaron violeta, no te la contaron completa

<p>Durante generaciones a sociólogos y sociólogas se nos ha transmitido un canon disciplinar altamente masculinizado debido que todas las figuras fundadoras reconocidas son varones, al punto de hablar de “los padres fundadores”, que han escrito sobre temas, considerados “masculinos” por las más críticas o “universales” por los más ingenuos, que no pasan por las problemáticas específicas de la experiencia de vida de las mujeres. Sin embargo, la reciente crecida de los movimientos feministas ha dado condiciones para emprender estudios que confirman la presencia de mujeres en los círculos intelectuales fundacionales de la Sociología, pero que fueron borradas en el curso de la escritura de la historia de la disciplina en el que se estableció como hegemónica una selección específica de los clásicos. Por lo que cada vez hay más elementos para plantear la posibilidad de una reconstrucción feminista de los clásicos de la Sociología y de la historia de la disciplina. En este artículo se exploran las condiciones de posibilidad, rutas y efectos de dicho planteamiento.</p>