Classical Paradigm Research Articles

How Does the Novice Become the Expert? An Instrumental Case Study of Procedural Educators

Abstract Purpose The classic paradigm of procedural education in medical training has involved trainees learning and performing invasive bedside procedures and subsequently teaching these procedures to more junior trainees. Many existing resident-as-teacher curricula focus on cognitive domains; there has been a lack of literature examining the transition from learner to teacher in procedural education. This hypothesis-generating instrumental case study explored how expert procedural educators transitioned from novice procedural educators to experts. Method A constructivist approach with semistructured interviews was used to explore the individual narratives and experiences of faculty of the Hospitalist Procedure Service at the University of California San Francisco as they reflected on their journey from learners to teachers, focusing on the faculty of the hospitalist procedure team at the University of California San Francisco. All 12 Hospitalist Procedure Service faculty members received invitations to be interviewed, and 9 agreed to participate. Interviews were conducted between July and October 2023. Results The 9 interviews created a rich and complex picture of the individual experiences and perceptions of procedural teaching. The faculty members varied in experience, ranging from 2 years on the procedure service faculty to more than 15 years of experience. Four main themes emerged from the interviews: methods for building teaching skills, tools that facilitate further educator growth, essential behaviors of effective educators, and common challenges. Inductive thematic analysis revealed trial and error as a major means of building procedural pedagogy and the use of precise communication as a crucial skill to manage learner cognitive load and the emotional challenges associated with learning and teaching procedures. Conclusions The use of precise communication as a tool for both educator and learner to navigate the complexities of procedural teaching highlights the essential role of clear instruction and feedback in the learning process.

The two-stage processing of judgment of confidence: evidence from ERP.

The judgment of confidence (JOC) refers to the confidence in the accuracy of the target item individuals have just retrieved and is a typical retrospective metacognitive monitoring process. In the classical paradigm of JOC, JOC occurs after the recognition or recall task. While initially viewed as a single-stage monitoring process, recent research on JOC suggests its internal mechanisms may be more complex, potentially encompassing both retrieval and monitoring processes. This study aims to delve into these mechanisms concerning neural temporal processes. In this study, event-related potential (ERP) was used to compare N400 and slow-wave ERPs of high and low JOCs at different time windows using a classic JOC paradigm. Behavioral results showed an inverted-U shaped relationship between response time (RT) and JOCs, peaking at magnitude 3 before declining. There were significantly longer RT for low JOCs compared with high JOCs, along with lower recognition scores. The ERP results showed that low JOCs induced larger N400 in the right frontal lobe and right central area, while high JOCs induced larger slow-wave components (500 ~ 700ms) in the right frontal lobe. Based on these findings, the present study suggests that JOC involves two processing stages. N400 reflects the process of cue acquisition, while the slow-wave component reflects the process of cue application. Furthermore, a two-stage model was proposed and validated, enriching the study of metacognition monitoring mechanisms, offering insights into the processing mechanisms of retrospective metacognitive monitoring.

A common factor underlying individual differences in confirmation bias.

When they are asked to test a given hypothesis, individuals tend to be biased towards confirming evidence. This phenomenon has been documented on different cognitive components: information search, weighing of evidence, and memory recall. However, the interpretation of these observations has been debated, and it remains unclear whether they truly reflect a confirmation bias (as opposed to e.g., a bias towards positive information). In the present study we aimed at evaluating whether these biases might be subtended by a common factor. We adapted three classic experimental paradigms on hypothesis testing (Wason selection task, 2-4-6 task, and interviewee task) and examined the relation between these biases using an individual differences approach. Participants (N = 200) completed a total of nine behavioral tasks, in which each component of confirmation bias was measured in each of the three experimental paradigms. Correlations and factor analyses within a multitrait-multimethod framework indicated greater convergence of bias scores within each component across paradigms, than within experimental paradigms. This suggests that a common factor underlies the different measurements of confirmation bias across experimental paradigms, at least to some extent. In these paradigms, thus, biases towards confirming evidence may truly reflect a confirmation bias.

HPB O05 - Changing paradigms in the management of severe acute pancreatitis: Focused multi-disciplinary working between surgeons and intensivists to mitigate organ failure in order to reduce mortality

Abstract Background Mortality was classically bimodal in severe acute pancreatitis and organ failure is the single most important factor in predicting outcome in severe acute pancreatitis. Initial interventions are supportive often requiring critical care. Subsequently treatments are required to manage necrosis and any organ recovery remains under threat. The outcomes and interventions from surgery and critical care are reviewed to determine how to balance organ failure and the need for necrosectomy in a modern multi-disciplinary tertiary care centre Method The Royal Liverpool provides a tertiary service to all patients with pancreatitis across Merseyside and North Wales. All patients that were transferred to critical care from 2018 – 2023 were analysed using the intensive care national audit and research centre database which contains information on organ failure. The patients with severe pancreatitis were then reviewed using electronic clinical notes and radiology images to determine clinical course and management. Results Of 134 patients, 48 (36%) were admitted locally, 85 (64%) transferred in, occurring 35% <2weeks, 29% 2-4weeks, 28% 4-6weeks and 8% >8weeks. 76 (57%) required necrosis intervention, 58 (43%) were conservatively managed. Mortality was 38% with 35% <4weeks, 22% 4-8weeks, 22% 8-12weeks, 22% >12weeks. No significant difference in mortality between conservative or interventional management (15 (45%) vs 18 (55%)) nor median age (58 vs 57.5 yrs). Survival related to number of failing organs (dead vs alive): nil organs: 10 patients vs 27 patients (20%vs32%), One: 11 vs 45 (22%vs45%), Two: 21 vs 9 (42%vs11%), Three: 8 vs 3 (16%vs4%), p<0.005. Conclusion Of patients deemed fit for ITU admission with necrotising pancreatitis, the classic paradigms of biphasic mortality no longer occur. Differences in mortality from intervention and age of patient has been negated by optimal ITU management for organ failure. For the initial phases and the intervention phases of management, ensuring degree of organ failure is key to survival. There is a significant change when two organs fail in mortality and this stresses the importance of holistic management. Our ITU promotes pancreas specific organ preservation measures of early enteral feeding, cessation/tailoring of antibiotics, early extubation/tracheostomy and most importantly multidisciplinary working

Capillary filling dynamics in closed-end carbon nanotubes-Defying the classical Lucas-Washburn paradigm.

The emergence of two-dimensional (2D) materials such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) offers the possibility of exploring new regimes of capillarity and wetting that remained inaccessible with traditional microfluidic and nanofluidic substrates. Here, we bring out the non-intuitive capillary filling regimes in closed-end CNTs using molecular-level investigations. Contrary to the existing understanding of the advancing liquid meniscus getting retarded by the viscous resistance offered by an entrapped vapor phase in a three-dimensional capillary, here the liquid meniscus is shown to accelerate toward the later stages of the dynamic wetting, which is attributed to the modified surface friction due to a 2D interface. This apparently counterintuitive observation is qualitatively linked to the local pressure fluctuations across the meniscus caused by the spontaneous bombardment of the entrapped vapor molecules, which may ramify into hitherto unexplored phenomena of a shape-reversed meniscus advancing in the 2-D pore. We further develop a simple analytical model to represent the essential physics of the resulting capillary filling dynamics, featuring significant deviations from the classical Lucas-Washburn paradigm. These results may turn out to be imperative in realizing new regimes of capillarity in 2D materials in multifarious applications, ranging from energy storage and water filtration to thin film flows in integrated electronics and photonic devices.

Conceptualization and standardization of a non-invasive closed head injury model using directed shockwave to mice

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide, with closed head injury (CHI) being one of the most common forms of TBI. Preclinical modeling of TBI is challenging due to confounding factors like craniectomy and poorly controlled injury severity. This study proposes a non-invasive CHI model using directed shockwaves. The mice heads were exposed to the shockwave and accommodated together following the implantation of RFID tags for automated neurocognitive assessment. Following a 13-day paradigm, mice underwent a digital gait analysis and subsequent classical behavioral test paradigms for affective, cognitive, and locomotor functions. Qualitative and quantitative histopathological assessment was carried out for shockwave pulses-dependent changes in terms of lesion volume, neuronal death, dendritic complexity, and spine density. Studies showed shockwave pulses-dependent differences in survivability, righting reflex, neural damage, and death. Shockwave-exposed mice showed significantly impaired learning and cognitive flexibility. Interestingly, exposed mice showed locomotor hyperactivity and risk-taking behavior (lack of anxiety) along with depression-like phenotypes. Our result suggests that the shockwave-based CHI models result in the clinically relevant phenotype and are precisely controlled for reproducibility.

Transformation of valence signaling in a mouse striatopallidal circuit

The ways in which sensory stimuli acquire motivational valence through association with other stimuli is one of the simplest forms of learning. Although we have identified many brain nuclei that play various roles in reward processing, a significant gap remains in understanding how valence encoding transforms through the layers of sensory processing. To address this gap, we carried out a comparative investigation of the mouse anteromedial olfactory tubercle (OT), and the ventral pallidum (VP) - 2 connected nuclei of the basal ganglia which have both been implicated in reward processing. First, using anterograde and retrograde tracing, we show that both D1 and D2 neurons of the anteromedial OT project primarily to the VP and minimally elsewhere. Using two-photon calcium imaging, we then investigated how the identity of the odor and reward contingency of the odor are differently encoded by neurons in either structure during a classical conditioning paradigm. We find that VP neurons robustly encode reward contingency, but not identity, in low-dimensional space. In contrast, the OT neurons primarily encode odor identity in high-dimensional space. Although D1 OT neurons showed larger responses to rewarded odors than other odors, consistent with prior findings, we interpret this as identity encoding with enhanced contrast. Finally, using a novel conditioning paradigm that decouples reward contingency and licking vigor, we show that both features are encoded by non-overlapping VP neurons. These results provide a novel framework for the striatopallidal circuit in which a high-dimensional encoding of stimulus identity is collapsed onto a low-dimensional encoding of motivational valence.

Transformation of valence signaling in a mouse striatopallidal circuit.

The ways in which sensory stimuli acquire motivational valence through association with other stimuli is one of the simplest forms of learning. Although we have identified many brain nuclei that play various roles in reward processing, a significant gap remains in understanding how valence encoding transforms through the layers of sensory processing. To address this gap, we carried out a comparative investigation of the mouse anteromedial olfactory tubercle (OT), and the ventral pallidum (VP) - 2 connected nuclei of the basal ganglia which have both been implicated in reward processing. First, using anterograde and retrograde tracing, we show that both D1 and D2 neurons of the anteromedial OT project primarily to the VP and minimally elsewhere. Using two-photon calcium imaging, we then investigated how the identity of the odor and reward contingency of the odor are differently encoded by neurons in either structure during a classical conditioning paradigm. We find that VP neurons robustly encode reward contingency, but not identity, in low-dimensional space. In contrast, the OT neurons primarily encode odor identity in high-dimensional space. Although D1 OT neurons showed larger responses to rewarded odors than other odors, consistent with prior findings, we interpret this as identity encoding with enhanced contrast. Finally, using a novel conditioning paradigm that decouples reward contingency and licking vigor, we show that both features are encoded by non-overlapping VP neurons. These results provide a novel framework for the striatopallidal circuit in which a high-dimensional encoding of stimulus identity is collapsed onto a low-dimensional encoding of motivational valence.

Extended scotogenic model of neutrino mass and proton decay

The current article presents an extension of the classical scotogenic neutrino mass paradigm, where the three issues in particle physics: dark matter, smallness of neutrino mass, and stability of the proton are interconnected. The scenario encompasses the neutrino mass as well as the proton decay as a consequence of an existence of the dark matter. The study successfully achieves the correlation between the naturally small neutrino masses and naturally long proton lifetime in the present paradigm. Furthermore, all relevant cosmological, collider, and flavor physics constraints are incorporated in the detailed analysis. The scotogenic fermionic dark matter with the mass in the range from 100 GeV to 10 TeV successfully satisfies all relevant constraints. The valid range of 2.51×10−5<λ<2×10−3 is obtained for the 2HDM λ coupling. We give a brief discussion, as well as outline some of the future prospects. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

Unveiling the dynamic evolution of innovation networks in emerging economies: A complex network approach

AbstractThe innovation network of enterprises in emerging economies is a complex system, comprising numerous interconnected elements. In the context of a dynamic and volatile market, innovation entities evolve the evolution of the local world through collaborative innovation and interactions. To accurately replicate the actual dynamics of the enterprise innovation network, an in‐depth analysis is essential to delineate the growth and reduction mechanisms of diverse nodal entities. This research, based on the classical complex network paradigm, proposes a model that is based on preferential attachment and pruning mechanisms. This model reflects the evolutionary trajectory of enterprise innovation networks and was subjected to simulation analysis using MATLAB. The findings prove that simulation is an effective analytical tool for understanding the evolutionary mechanisms of innovation networks within emerging economies. The model clearly demonstrates the complex evolution of enterprise innovation networks, providing both theoretical foundations and practical guidance for strategic resource allocation and network governance within corporate environments.

Gateway to the study of the amygdala and emotion.

The study of the amygdala and its role in the processing of emotions has become a common focus in neuroscience. The modern expansion of research in this area is partly due to the discovery of a subcortical pathway for the transmission of emotional information and the experimental paradigm that was developed to study it. Groundbreaking experiments during the 90s utilized anatomical, neurophysiological, and behavioral lesion studies in a rodent animal model to uncover the neural circuitry of a simple emotional memory. These studies demonstrated the essential role of a specific monosynaptic pathway in emotional memory, using traditional tools and behavioral methods. The development of an animal model with a simple and appropriate classical conditioning paradigm made experimental investigations into the neural basis of emotion tenable and available to a generation of neuroscientists. These tools and a focus on the amygdala's neural connections and their essential role in emotional memory were a driving force in the explosion of research regarding the amygdala and emotion.

Classical Conditioning of Adult Drosophila.

Olfactory classical conditioning paradigms have been extensively used since the early 1970s to apply genetic approaches to the study of memory in Drosophila. Over the intervening years, advances in genetics have largely changed the focus of studies from the role of single genes in memory to investigation of memory-relevant neuronal circuits. However, the original behavioral paradigms have remained largely unaltered, besides investigators making a few useful tweaks to the training and testing apparatus and modifications to the operating procedures. In this protocol, we provide the reader with a detailed description of the manufacture and assembly of a typical T-maze apparatus, where populations of adult flies can be trained and their odor memory tested later, by giving them a binary choice between the two trained odors. We describe how variations of the training apparatus permit both aversive (odor-shock) and appetitive (odor-sugar) memories to be studied. In addition, we describe a recent modification of the apparatus and protocol that permits study of multisensory (color and odor) aversive and appetitive learning. Control assays for sensory acuity and locomotion are also included.

Chronic treatment with the antipsychotic lurasidone modulates the neuroinflammatory changes associated with the vulnerability to chronic mild stress exposure in female rats

Stress exposure is a key risk factor for the developmentof depressive-like conditions. However, despite the higher incidence of Major Depressive Disorder in the female population, classical stress-based experimental paradigms have primarily focused on males. In the present study, we used the well-established chronic mild stress (CMS) paradigm to investigate the development of anhedonia, a cardinal symptom of affective disorders, in the female animals and we also studied the potential effect of the antipsychotic drug lurasidone in normalizing the alterations brought about by stress exposure. We found that three weeks of CMS exposure produced a significant reduction of sucrose intake in 50% of the animals (vulnerable, CMS-V), whereas the others were resilient (CMS-R). The development of an anhedonic phenotype in CMS-V was associated with a significant elevation of different immune markers, such as Complement C3 and C4, and inflammatory cytokines, including INFß and Il1ß in dorsal and ventral hippocampus. Interestingly, sub-chronic treatment with the antipsychotic drug lurasidone was able to revert the anhedonic phenotype while normalizing most of the molecular alterations found in rats vulnerable to CMS exposure. This study extends the ability of lurasidone to normalize the anhedonic phenotype in CMS rats also to females. Moreover, we provide novel evidence on lurasidone’s potential effectiveness in treating mental disorders characterized by immune-inflammatory dysfunction.

Global Processing Deficit in Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment.

Visuo-perceptual and visuo-attentional disorders, such as global processing deficit and simultanagnosia, are not routinely investigated in prodromal forms of typical Alzheimer's disease, as amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI). This study evaluated global processing abilities through Navon's classical paradigm in individuals with amnestic MCI and investigated the related visuo-perceptual and attentional components involved in simultanagnosia. Sixteen consecutive patients with amnestic MCI (6 single-domain, 10 multiple-domain) and 16 matched controls were requested to identify global and local elements of hierarchical Navon letters, and to name large and small solid letters. While correctly identifying solid letters, patients with multiple-domain amnestic MCI were less accurate in processing the global level of hierarchical stimuli compared to controls. Single-case analyses suggested that global processing may also be impaired in single-domain amnestic MCI. In addition, patients with pathological performance in the Navon task showed perceptual and/or visual focal attention deficits. Early dysfunction of holistic processing can be detected in amnestic MCI. Visuo-perceptual and/or visual focal attention mechanisms, which have been shown to be damaged in Posterior Cortical Atrophy patients with simultanagnosia, may be impaired in individuals with amnestic MCI. Investigation and identification of global processing deficits in MCI could contribute to early diagnosis and longitudinal monitoring of the disease.

Modernisasi Pesantren Salaf Terhadap Transisi Kehidupan Sosial Dalam Tinjauan Filsafat Sosial

Salaf pesantren is one of the Islamic educational institutions that has a great influence and contribution to Indonesia in encouraging the progress of science and character education. So it is appropriate to study the renewal carried out by these salaf pesantrens. The renewal carried out by these salaf pesantren is a form of answering the needs of a dynamic society. So the review conducted in this paper is to look at the innovation of Hidayatut Thullab pesantren in the review of social philosophy, so the question in this paper is how the social inetarchy relationship between the characters produced between the community or the pesantren family and the educational innovations it makes to society as a whole. The method used is a combination of literature studies and field studies, using the domain analysis method, componen analysis, taxonomy analysis, and cultural theme analysis, the purpose of this method is to find the construction of social situations clearly. The results of the analysis of this paper are, that this semi-modern salaf pesantren has been able to build its social culture clearly, because it is assisted by a curriculum, adequate Islamic material and the environment of pesantren life based on salaf culture, so that the character of social interaction is clearly illustrated as a family or pesantren community that has a strong Islamic identity, a thick cultural culture and tak'dzim to the kiaiKiyai. However, because the innovation is only limited to the digitalisation of online mass media-based da'wah communication, the impact is only in the field of da'wah, and the social environment is also still limited to the relationship network environment, not yet to a more famous national level, as we know that the world of digital communication still needs something unique so that it goes viral and is widely known and captures more people. While the pesantren's relationship with the surrounding community as a form of social interaction has not been carried out optimally, because it is still confined to the salaf pesantren system with a traditional classical paradigm, thus making the salaf pesantren movement more limited than modern pesantren, such as the lack of cooperation between pesantren as a whole as educational institutions to the government and NGOs in order to obtain integrated activities, adequate facilities, teacher support and so on.

Cardiac afferent signals can facilitate visual dominance in binocular rivalry

Sensory signals from the body’s visceral organs (e.g. the heart) can robustly influence the perception of exteroceptive sensations. This interoceptive–exteroceptive interaction has been argued to underlie self-awareness by situating one’s perceptual awareness of exteroceptive stimuli in the context of one’s internal state, but studies probing cardiac influences on visual awareness have yielded conflicting findings. In this study, we presented separate grating stimuli to each of subjects’ eyes as in a classic binocular rivalry paradigm – measuring the duration for which each stimulus dominates in perception. However, we caused the gratings to ‘pulse’ at specific times relative to subjects’ real-time electrocardiogram, manipulating whether pulses occurred during cardiac systole, when baroreceptors signal to the brain that the heart has contracted, or in diastole when baroreceptors are silent. The influential ‘Baroreceptor Hypothesis’ predicts the effect of baroreceptive input on visual perception should be uniformly suppressive. In contrast, we observed that dominance durations increased for systole-entrained stimuli, inconsistent with the Baroreceptor Hypothesis. Furthermore, we show that this cardiac-dependent rivalry effect is preserved in subjects who are at-chance discriminating between systole-entrained and diastole-presented stimuli in a separate interoceptive awareness task, suggesting that our results are not dependent on conscious access to heartbeat sensations.

Stimulated Brillouin Scattering Gain of Waveguides Calculated with Acoustic Perturbation Method

Abstract Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS) is a phenomenon of energy transfer from an optical pump beam to longer wavelengths of light through its interaction with the medium via acoustic phonons. Previous studies have reported a calculation of the SBS gain based on the optical force approach, where the gain is not only affected by the classical paradigm of intrinsic material’s nonlinear effects in the form of electrostriction but also due to radiation pressure. In this work, the acoustic perturbation approach is applied in analyzing the optical and mechanical response of the waveguide, wherein calculating the scattering process, the changes of the waveguide structure due to photoelasticity (PE), termed Moving Boundary (MB), are considered. This acoustic perturbation method avoids uncertainties related to optical force contributions. To validate its applicability, the present method is used to calculate the SBS gain of various waveguide structures, namely an unsuspended Silicon nano-waveguide, ridge Lithium Niobate (LiNBO3) nano-waveguide on Sapphire (Al2O3) substrate and buried Arsenic trisulfide (As2S3) in Silicon dioxide (SiO2). The forward and backward SBS gain obtained using the present method of acoustic perturbation are similar to the reported values obtained from other methods of calculation as well as experiments.

Using the Cocktail Party Effect to Add the Coding Dimension of Auditory Event Related Potential Brain-Computer Interface.

The auditory event-related potential based brain-computer interface (aERP-BCI) is a classical paradigm of brain-computer communication. To improve the coding efficiency of aERP-BCI, this study proposes a method using two parallel voice channels to add the coding dimension based on the cocktail party effect. The novel paradigm used male and female voices to establish two parallel oddball sound stimulus sequences. In comparison, the baseline paradigm only presented male or female stimulus sequences. Both the double voice condition (DVC) and the single voice condition (SVC) paradigms carried out offline experiments and the DVC also carried out online experiment. Subsequently, the EEG signal and BCI operation results were compared and analyzed. The cocktail party effect caused a significant difference in the EEG responses of non-target stimulus between the focused vocal channel and the ignored vocal channel under the DVC paradigm, and the focused and ignored channels achieved a recognition accuracy of 97.2%. The target recognition rate of DVC was 82.3%, with no significant difference compared with 85% of SVC while the information transfer rate (ITR) of DVC reaching 15.3 bits/min was significantly higher than that of SVC. The cocktail party effect improves the coding efficiency by adding parallel channels without reducing the target/non-target stimulus recognition in the focused vocal channel. This provides a novel direction for the performance improvement of aERP-BCI.

The impact of stimulus format and presentation order on social working memory updating.

Emotional faces and words have been extensively employed to examine cognitive emotional processing including social working memory, which plays a pivotal role in social interactions. However, it remains unclear which exact role these two stimulus formats play in updating specific emotional content, such as positive or negative information. Therefore, the current study examined the differences in working memory updating (WMU) of negative, neutral, and positive faces (Experiment 1) and words (Experiment 2), using a classic two-back paradigm with an event-related potential technique. In both experiments, emotional stimuli were presented in the same or different-valence order to further determine whether presentation order can also influence the WMU of specific emotional content. Our results showed that both stimulus format and presentation order play a role: (a) while faces showed an affective bias [larger P2 and late positive potential (LPP) for negative and positive faces than for neutral faces], words showed a negativity bias (larger LPP for negative words than both neutral and positive words); (b) While faces showed better performance with same-valence order, words showed better performance with different-valence order. Taken together, our findings indicate that, even if faces and words can contain the same emotional information, they impact social WMU differently.

On the significance of the different geometrical and dosimetric parameters in microbeam and minibeam radiation therapy a retrospective evaluation.

Spatially Fractionated Radiation Therapy (SFRT) is an unconventional therapeutic approach with the potential to disrupt the classical paradigms of conventional radiation therapy. The high spatial dose modulation in SFRT is believed to activate distinct radiobiological mechanisms which lead to remarkable increases in normal tissue tolerance. To make optimal use of SFRT and its benefits, a deeper understanding of the biological response and its relationship with the complex dosimetric and geometric components of SFRT is essential. A retrospective evaluation of preclinical studies was conducted to gain insight into the dosimetric and geometric parameters that are most correlated with normal tissue response. Current literature evaluates the response of tissue to MBRT and MRT according to various end points, e.g. the level of desquamation, degree of necrosis, or the amount of malcalcification. A set of metrics was developed to allow a quantitative comparison of these results. The strongest correlations were observed with the doses in both the peaks and valleys as well as the ratio of the area covered by the peak over the total area. This emphasises the geometry of the beam. MBRT challenged previous uniform dose-distribution paradigms by highlighting the critical role of Peak Dose alongside Valley Dose in tissue sparing whereas MRT underscores the significant influence of geometric beam parameters on tissue preservation. The data exhibits variability in the results obtained using different animal models and endpoints and additional research is warranted to explore the trends observed in this study under controlled conditions.