Class Of Adjectives Research Articles

A conversion analysis of so-called coercion from relational to qualitative adjectives in English

It is widely observed that relational adjectives (RAdjs) in English can be coerced into qualitative adjectives (QAdjs) rather freely ( Farsi 1968 ; Beard 1991 ; Bauer et al. 2013 ; Nikolaeva & Spencer 2013 ; Lieber 2015 ). However, the process of coercion and its output properties have not been studied extensively. This paper presents a conversion analysis of the process and discusses how it is effected in the grammar and how converted QAdjs differ from non-converted suffixal ones, such as similatives. The analysis considers the working of the truthfulness operator within a class name NP. Clearly demarcating different adjective classes, the findings of this paper contribute to research on both conversion and RAdj.

К НЕКОТОРЫМ ОСНОВАНИЯМ КЛАССИФИКАЦИИ ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНЫХ (НА МАТЕРИАЛЕ АНГЛИЙСКОГО, РУССКОГО И КАБАРДИНО-ЧЕРКЕССКОГО ЯЗЫКОВ)

In the article the problems connected with the study of the functional and semantic features of the adjective in the composition of the adjective phrase and the possible determination of the parameters of its inclusion in structurally organized categories are studied. Certain approaches to the classification of attributive combinations and the description of the semantic functions of adjectives are analyzed. The significance of highlighting certain criteria, corresponding to the principle of consistency of classifications bases, is substantiated. The conclusion is made about the necessity of strict correspondence of the highlighted semantic classes of adjectives to the indicated criteria and their reliable representation in compliance with the nature of cause-effect relations.

Distinction grammaticale pronom possessif/adjectif possessif en ancien français

The present article examines the problem of grammatical distinction between possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns in the Old French. Analyzing the compatibilities of these linguistics units, the author attempts to prove that the class of possessive adjectives and the class of possessive pronouns were formed during the period of the ix th-xiii th centuries.

Alternating adjectives

Abstract The paper describes a puzzle in the semantics of a class of English adjectives which alternate systematically in meaning. We know from the literature on adjectival meanings that the STIMULUS vs. EXPERIENCER pair of roles forms the basis of two kinds of adjectives in English depending on whether the STIMULUS or the EXPERIENCER is the one who holds the property. Our puzzle adjectives alternate between these two readings in a way parallel to the morphologically marked adjectival participles (in -ed vs. -ing) of Object Experiencer verbs. I argue further that there are reasons to think that the relationship between these two roles in this alternation is a stative version of causation, with the STIMULUS reading of the adjective being derived from the Psych EXPERIENCER reading. The existence of this alternation shows that within simple property ascriptions (of which adjectival predication is a prototypical expression) a distinction is made between Holders of properties simpliciter, and Holders of causational-properties. Thus, in analysing this adjectival puzzle as a parallel to verbal diathesis, the paper contributes to the debate on the similarities and differences between states and dynamic events.

Порядок атрибутивных прилагательных в истории русского языка и статус прилагательного в структуре именной группы

The paper discusses ordering of different semantic classes of attributive adjectives and possible implications for the syntactic hierarchy based of the (non-)observed linearization. Two corpus-driven studies are presented: the first one considers Russian, the second one deals with the complex corpus, consisting of Old Church Slavonic and Old Russian texts from XI to XVII centuries. Although quantitative analysis shows the tendency towards ordering of attributive adjective, this tendency is not strong and regular enough. The paper concludes that attributive adjectives can be hardly viewed as representing syntactically ordered functional structure and soon argue in favor of attributive adjunction.

The syntax and semantics of nominal modifiers in Spanish: interpretations, types and ordering facts

This article provides an overview of the main facts and theories regarding nominal modifiers, with attention to the internal division of the low DP-structure (gender, number and N). The article presents first the notion of modification seen from the perspectives of semantics and syntax (§1); adjective classes are discussed in §2. §3 discusses the contrasts between prenominal and postnominal adjectives; §4 discusses the ordering of adjectives in sequences; §5 reviews the main theories that account for the facts discussed in §3 and §4. §6 moves to prepositional modifiers, presenting facts and theories about them. §7 presents the conclusions.

Visible degrees in Italian Sign Language

Data from Italian Sign Language provide evidence in favor of a degree-based analysis over a non-degree based analysis for gradable adjectives and comparative constructions. Morphological and phonological constraints identify a class of gradable adjectives in which degree variables can be overtly represented as ordered points established in the signing space by an iconic mapping. When this happens the visible degree becomes available as an antecedent for a later pronoun, as in the nominal, temporal and modal domain, showing that the same anaphoric system is at work.

Морфосинтаксис прилагательных в сеенку

Seenku (Samogo, Northwestern Mande) contains a small class of adjectives, which differ morphosyntactically from deverbal modifiers (qualificational verbs) and nouns. This paper describes the morphosyntax of these adjectives as both modifiers and predicates. Modifiers follow the noun, with no tonal interactions. Plural marking is obligatory on the adjective through reduplication and suffixation, the latter of which is optionally doubled on the noun. As predicates, adjectives follow the copular verb but are always preceded by a reflexive pronoun coindexed with the subject. I compare these constructions to other Mande languages and suggest a diachronic path for the unusual predicate construction.

The Adjective Class in Irabu Ryukyuan

The Adjective Class in Irabu Ryukyuan

On Predication of Adjectives in Ga

The adjective as a word class is elusive, as sometimes this distinct class is not easy to be identified in some languages though recent linguistics studies have claimed it exists in all languages. In Ga, a Kwa language of Niger Congo, the adjective class can be clearly defined. The Ga adjective class consists of both derived and underived forms. Adjectives are syntactically known to play the role of attribution, and/or predication and also found in comparative constructions. This paper investigates how adjectives in predicative positions in English are expressed in Ga and more especially when multiple ones serve as copula complement. It shows that adjectives in predication are expressed through verbs in Ga. The adjectives found in Ga are classified according to Dixon semantic classes. The data for this study were collected through questionnaire and follow up interviews from some native speakers. From the study, it came to light that verbs that occur in predicate positions as head of the verb phrases may have adjective equivalents but speakers prefer the verbs to the adjectives and there seems to be some number agreement with the nouns in subject position. When the adjective has no verb equivalent, natives make use of relative clauses and also make use of the adjectives. The study further revealed that when multiple adjectives are used in predicative position, though a restricted order was not established, there exist a preferred order for example, dimension adjectives occur before colour adjectives.

Adjectival and Adverbial Modification: The View from Modern Type Theories

In this paper we present a study of adjectival/adverbial modification using modern type theories (MTTs), i.e. type theories within the tradition of Martin-Löf. We present an account of various issues concerning adjectival/adverbial modification and argue that MTTs can be used as an adequate language for interpreting NL semantics. MTTs are not only expressive enough to deal with a range of modification phenomena, but are furthermore well-suited to perform reasoning tasks that can be easily implemented (e.g. in proof-assistants) given their proof-theoretic nature. In MTT-semantics, common nouns are interpreted as types rather than predicates. Therefore, in order to capture the semantics of adjectives adequately, one needs to meet the challenge of modeling CNs modified by adjectives as types. To explicate that this can be done successfully, we first look at the mainstream classification of adjectives, i.e. intersective, subsective and non-subsective adjectives. There, we show that the rich type structure available in MTTs, along with a suitable subtyping framework, offers an adequate mechanism to model these cases. In particular, this modelling naturally takes care of the characterising inferences associated with each class of adjectives. Then, more advanced issues on adjectival modification are discussed: (a) degree adjectives, (b) comparatives and (c) multidimensional adjectives. There, it is shown that the use of indexed types can be usefully applied in order to deal with these cases. In the same vein, the issue of adverbial modification is discussed. We study two general typings for sentence and VP adverbs respectively. It is shown that the rich type structure in MTTs further provides useful organisational mechanisms in giving formal semantics for adverbs. In particular, we discuss the use of varSigma -types to capture the veridicality/non-veridicality distinction and further discuss cases of intensional adverbs using the type theoretic notion of context (i.e. without resorting to intensional typing). We also look at manner, subject and speech act adverbials and propose solutions using MTTs. Finally, we show that the current proof technology can help mechanically check the associated inferences. A number of our proposals concerning adjectival and adverbial modification have been formalised in the proof assistant Coq and many of the associated inference patterns are checked to be correctly captured.

Prototypical adverbs: from comparative concept to typological prototype

While adjectives and their potential universality have been much debated, adverbs remain rather neglected in the typological and cognitive literature. From a typological perspective, adjectives can be dealt with using a comparative concept: rather than assuming from the outset the existence of a class of adjectives, a particular language-independent definition of adjectives is used as a heuristic for examining recurrent form-meaning combinations. In the present article, adverb is addressed as a comparative concept in the same vein: an adverb is a lexeme that denotes a descriptive property and can be used to narrow the predication of a verb. This comparative concept is applied to a sample of 41 languages from the whole world. The results show that although there are diverse structural possibilities in terms of different adverbial constructions of varying spread and productivity, simple adverbs are found in a considerable number of unrelated languages, even in some cases where adjectives cannot be found. Clear adverb subtypes reminiscent of semantic types of adjectives further emerge, leading to a discussion of whether the comparative concepts in this case allow us to uncover a substantial cross-linguistic prototype.

THE QUANTITATIVE SPECIFICITY OF RELATIVE ADJECTIVES (POTENTIAL INTENSIFIERS)

The article below is a part of more exhaustive research devoted to the complex study of adjectives of intensifying character. The research is aimed at analyzing the mechanism of intensifying adjectives and revealing the potential possibility of showing quantitative features by the whole class of adjectives. The given article makes an attempt, first, to describe the adjectives the meaning of which does not contain the seme of intensification, but that are able to acquire graduation quantities in speech and, second, to consider the usage of such adjectives. The research material contains adjectives selected from fiction novels of modern British and American writers, the volume of the analyzed texts amounting to eight thousand pages. According to the paper, potential intensifiers may be of two types. On the one hand, potential intensifiers involve the adjectives the semantic meaning of which already includes the seme of quality and which under particular conditions, for example, when used as a metaphor, develop qualitative meaning and become gradable. On the other hand, potential intensifiers include a group of words without any qualitative meaning in their structure. Such adjectives are able to determine the quantity with the help of submodifiers by means of figurative comparison or gradability can be denoted by putting an adjective in its comparative or superlative degree. The conducted analysis makes it possible to conclude that unlike qualitative adjectives that contain quantitative components and are able to indicate quantity both in implicit and explicit ways, it is mainly typical for relative adjectives to explicitly express gradability.

The Origin and Meaning of Mandaic 1

The most characteristic figures in the Mandaean religion are the beings known as the eutria. unlike the supreme being, who remains largely aloof from the material world, the eutria repeatedly intervene in the affairs of mankind to protect the Mandaeans and punish those who threaten them. The origin and precise meaning of this term have been the subject of some debate. The scholarly consensus that has developed over the past fifteen decades, namely that it is cognate with Aramaic ‘uṯrā ‘riches’ and therefore must mean ‘riches’, is not justified either by the internal evidence from the Mandaic literature or by the comparative evidence from the other Semitic languages. By comparing its contemporary spoken form with related words in all other branches of Semitic, this contribution will demonstrate that it clearly derives from the Proto-Semitic root *w-t-r ‘to exceed’, that it is one of an extremely small class of relic Causative deverbal adjectives in Aramaic, that its original meaning with reference to divine beings is ‘excellent’, and that in Classical Mandaic (and only in Classical Mandaic) it secondarily came to be used as a proper noun referring to an entire category of supernatural beings (‘the excellencies’).

Adaptation of Anglicisms in Ukrainian Internet Communication

The article reveals the features of word-formative development of new English lexical units in online communication. As is known, syntheticity is typological feature of Ukrainian word-formation. Contact of two typologically different languages – English with Ukrainian is leading to increased of the class of indeclinable nouns in the Modern Ukrainian. Indeclinable nouns are bases in compound words in Ukrainian. Indeclinable nouns and adjectives create problems in the creation of compound words. Differentiation bases indeclinable adjective from the noun is impossible without context. Also, the accumulation of vowels (медіа–аналіз) or consonants (бізнес–структура) is a violation of typological features of the Ukrainian language. Proved that incomplete adaptation of new English borrowing in the grammatical system of Ukrainian is cause of problems writing new compound words. To solve the problem of spelling compound words, words should be properly qualified as composites (should be write together) or yukstapozytes (should be write with a hyphen). Composites also formed without binders interfiks so-called half composite (арт–школа, медіа–арт). English are influenced on such qualitative changes in the structure of compound words. An important practical recommendation is the need to adapt the new English borrowing in Ukrainian grammatical system. It is necessary to adapt the lexical units of analytical language according to the requirements of the Ukrainian: provide the category of gender, number, case. Also not recommended to expand the class of indeclinable nouns and adjectives. These phenomena reflect the trends of the modern Ukrainian lexicon updating.

A Proof-Theoretic Semantics for Adjectival Modification

The paper introduces a proof-theoretic semantics (PTS) for adjectival modification (adjective---noun combination) as an alternative to the traditional model-theoretic semantics basing meaning on truth-conditions. The paper considers the proof-theoretic meaning of modification by means of the three traditional adjective classes: intersective, subsective and privative. It does so by introducing a meaning-conferring natural-deduction proof system for such modification. The PTS theory of meaning is not polluted by ontological commitments, for example, a scale for beauty and a yardstick for being beautiful. It only uses syntactic artefacts of the proof language. The paper also defines, by suitable rules, iterated modification, shedding light on the relationship between iteration and adjectival classes. Modification via coordinated adjectives is covered too. An appendix delineates briefly the main ingredients of PTS.

The Origin of the Caland System and the Typology of Adjectives

This paper argues that the Caland system rests on a Pre-PIE verb-like adjective class, which formed root aorists. The Caland system as we know it came to be when PIE shifted to having a noun-like adjective class, and the Caland roots had to be adapted to the new system via derivation (while the old root aorists were gradually lost). Evidence for root aorists to Caland roots in Vedic is reviewed, and a typologically informed scenario for the shift is proposed. Finally, the paper argues that this scenario clarifies the origin of the *-eh1- stative in Indo-European (following Jasanoff (2002–2003)’s account), which would have arisen as PIE shifted from verb-like adjectives to nominal adjectives, and came to have a switch adjective system based on aspect.

Negative knowledge from positive evidence

Why can’t we say the asleep cat ? There is a class of adjectives in English, all of which start with a schwa (e.g. afraid, alone, asleep, away , etc.), that cannot be used attributively in a prenominal position. A frequently invoked strategy for the acquisition of such negative constraints in language is to use indirect negative evidence. For instance, if the learner consistently observes paraphrases such as the cat that is asleep , then the conspicuous absence of the asleep cat may be a clue for its ungrammaticality (Boyd & Goldberg 2011). This article provides formal and quantitative evidence from child-directed English data to show that such learning strategies are untenable. However, the child can rely on positive data to establish the distributional similarities between this apparently idiosyncratic class of adjectives and locative particles (e.g. here, over, out , etc.) and prepositional phrases. With the use of an independently motivated principle of generalization (Yang 2005), the ungrammaticality of attributive usage can be effectively extended to the adjectives in question.

A -adjectives, statistical preemption, and the evidence: Reply to Yang (2015)

A certain class of English adjectives known as a -adjectives resist appearing attributively as prenominal modifiers (e.g. ?? the afraid boy , ?? the asleep man ). Boyd & Goldberg 2011 had offered experimental evidence suggesting that the dispreference is learnable on the basis of categorization and statistical preemption : repeatedly witnessing predicative formulations in contexts in which the attributive form would otherwise be appropriate. The present reply addresses Yang’s (2015) counterproposal for how a -adjectives are learned and his instructive critique of statistical preemption. The counterproposal is that children receive evidence that a -adjectives behave like locative particles in occurring with certain adverbs such as far and right . However, in an analysis of the 450-million-word COCA corpus, the suggested adverbial evidence is virtually nonexistent (e.g. * far alive , * straight afraid ). In fact, these adverbs occur much more frequently with typical adjectives (e.g. far greater, straight alphabetical ). Furthermore, relating a -adjectives to locative particles does not provide evidence of the restriction, because locative particles themselves can appear as prenominal modifiers ( the down payment, the outside world ). The critique of statistical preemption is based on a 4.3-million-word corpus analysis of child-directed speech that suggests that children cannot amass the requisite evidence before they are three years old. While we clarify which sorts of data are relevant to statistical preemption, we concur that the required data is relatively sparsely represented in the input. In fact, recent evidence suggests that children are not actually cognizant of the restriction until they are roughly ten years old, an indication that input of an order of magnitude more than 4.3 million words may be required. We conclude that a combination of categorization and statistical preemption is consistent with the available evidence of how the restriction on a -adjectives is learned.

Adjectives and determiners

Traditional grammar conflates a variety of categories that are distinguished in modern syntactic theory. Items now classified as degree elements (very, extremely, mostly, completely) are assimilated by traditional grammar into the broad class of adverbs. Likewise items now classified as determiners (the, that, a, every, both) are assimilated into the class of adjectives. The distinction between A and D assumes particular importance within recent debates about whether languages might lack the D category – the Parameterized DP-Hypothesis of Fukui (1986), Corver (1992), Zlatić (1997), Baker (2003), Bošković (2005), Despić (2011), among others. This view holds that languages lacking a definite article do not project DP at all, and realize typical determiner elements uniformly within the category of adjective. In this paper I examine data from Serbian, a much discussed candidate for “DP-less” status, looking at the behavior of the relevant elements both with respect to proposed universal diagnostics for adjectivehood and in comparison with neighboring, uncontroversial DP languages (Macedonian, Bulgarian). I show there is no evidence from either source for assuming adjectival status of the relevant items in Serbian. This finding opposes the crucial prediction of the Parameterized DP-Hypothesis. This work is intended to contribute to the existing cross-linguistic discussion on the issues of determiner parameterization (Bašić, 2004; Pereltsvaig, 2007; Caruso, 2011; Bailyn, 2012; Pereltsvaig, 2013, i.a.).