Clandestine Methamphetamine Laboratories Research Articles

Chemical decontamination of methamphetamine and ephedrine using Fe-TAML catalysed hydrogen peroxide oxidation

Exposure to contamination from former clandestine methamphetamine laboratories has been linked to adverse health effects including respiratory distress, sensory irritation, and behavioural changes. Therefore, it is important to employ effective remediation strategies to protect public health.Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) cleaning products are effective for chemical decontamination, however their mechanism of oxidative decomposition of methamphetamine and the identity of breakdown products are still largely undetermined. This inhibits our ability to effectively estimate hazards involved with their use in methamphetamine remediation. This study investigated the formation of products from the oxidative decomposition of methamphetamine, and one common precursor, ephedrine, by an H2O2 solution, catalysed by Fe-TAML (a green chemistry catalyst containing iron coordinated by a tetraamido macrocyclic ligand). Oxidation products identified in these reactions included common chemical precursors benzaldehyde and phenylacetone (also known as phenyl-2-propanone, P2P) as well as by-products typically related to methamphetamine manufacturing processes such as phenylacetone N-methylimine, amphetamine, and N-formylamphetamine. The high efficiency of oxidation of methamphetamine (88 ± 2%) and ephedrine (83 ± 2%) within 5 min, and >96% removal after 60 min with a second intermediary dose of H2O2, gives precedent to the future use of catalysed H2O2 solutions for methamphetamine remediation.

Characterization of One Pot methamphetamine laboratories using GC-MS and LC-MS/MS

Following the first discovery in 2007, One Pot methamphetamine laboratories have quickly grown to become the number one method of production across the United States. While One Pot laboratories accounted for over 85% of all clandestine methamphetamine laboratories in the United States from 2012 to 2016, the byproducts formed during these syntheses have remained uncharacterized. This research sought to help assess the public health impacts of these clandestine laboratories and assist in criminal investigations by characterizing One Pot methamphetamine laboratories and identifying byproducts produced during illicit manufacturing. Using gas chromatography mass spectrometry, byproducts were identified in the solid and liquid waste materials, as well as the product salts of One Pot reactions. Once identified, liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry was used to quantitate the concentration of these byproducts in all aspects of a completed One Pot methamphetamine reaction. Results demonstrated that designated byproducts could be found in solid waste, liquid waste, and product salts of a One Pot methamphetamine reaction. Two commonly used solvents in One Pot methamphetamine laboratories, diethyl ether and camp fuel, were compared, and results determined that the quantity of byproducts produced during One Pot methamphetamine syntheses were affected by which solvent was used during the reaction. This was the first thorough characterization of the One Pot methamphetamine reaction, and the identification of byproducts in the reaction waste and product salts provides analytical targets to monitor and detect clandestine laboratories.

The impact of clandestine methamphetamine labs on property values: Discovery, decontamination and stigma

While a large literature addresses the societal cost of substance abuse across a number of domains, little is known about the impact of substance abuse on property values. This study uses unique data from Linn County, Oregon and a spatial, difference-in-difference identification strategy to test the impact of the discovery and the subsequent decontamination of clandestine methamphetamine (meth) laboratories (labs) on property values. Results suggest that even though meth labs are typically found in less-desirable neighborhoods with lower home prices, the discovery of a lab causes the price of nearby homes to drop by approximately six and a half percent. Further, the decontamination of homes used as meth labs results in an increase in property values by approximately five percent. Overall, these results suggest that beyond the potential direct benefits of reducing domestic meth production (e.g., reductions in crime, child abuse), disrupting domestic meth production has another important benefit in mitigating negative effects on property values. Also, state laws mandating the decontamination of meth labs and corresponding decontamination programs may yield significant positive net benefits. Finally, the fact that meth lab decontamination does not fully offsets the impact of discovery (homes recover about 75%) suggests a potential stigma effect associated with meth lab discovery.

Anterograde Amnesia after Methamphetamine Lab Exposure

Anterograde Amnesia after Methamphetamine Lab Exposure Background: Some known toxic exposures can produce detrimental cognitive deficits. Yet, very few substances have been linked to the development of anterograde amnesia. Here, we report a novel case of a middle-age man who presented with a profound and apparently permanent anterograde amnesia following his exposure to a clandestine methamphetamine laboratory. Case Report: A 47 year-old, right-handed man presented in 2013 with a history of memory loss and seizures since 2001, when he was exposed during his work as a firefighter to the fumes of spilled material intended to synthesize methamphetamine in a clandestine laboratory. Following the exposure, he suffered a major and immediate impairment of multiple cognitive domains, with anterograde memory being most impaired. A formal neurobehavioral status examination NBSE showed a profound impairment in episodic/verbal memory and lesser impairment of executive function. The patient clinical course has to date been stable without further deterioration or improvement. Discussion: This case highlights a clear temporal relationship of methamphetamine laboratory exposure and the development of deficits in memory and executive dysfunction suggestive of involvement of both prefrontal-striatal circuits and medial temporal areas. This is in concordance with prior animal studies, and warrants further investigation in the future.

Meth-Detecting Cars, Chewing-Gum Biosensors

Rival drug dealers, cheap foreign knockoffs, and the Drug Enforcement Administration are just some of the problems illicit methamphetamine drugmakers need to deal with. Now a research team led by Guido F. Verbeck of the University of North Texas has unleashed drug-sniffing cars to the list of drug kingpin headaches (Anal. Chem. 2015, DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b03269). These vehicular bloodhounds incorporate a portable mass spectrometry system within a Ford Fusion for covert detection of clandestine methamphetamine laboratories. “Most meth is sold on the street as soon as it is made, so the key is to measure aromatic precursors and by-products,” Verbeck says. Verbeck’s team uses a mock mobile home park they call Crime Scene City for real-world testing of the system. The scientists heat a stew of methamphetamine chemicals on a hot plate inside an empty mobile home bathroom and then use their car-mounted mass spec to locate the meth brew. “People ...

Vehicle-Mounted Portable Mass Spectrometry System for the Covert Detection via Spatial Analysis of Clandestine Methamphetamine Laboratories

The ability to detect atmospheric effluent from clandestine methamphetamine manufacture is a useful tool for law enforcement. A membrane inlet mass spectrometer is mounted onto an all-electric drive capable hybrid vehicle that samples the atmosphere while in motion. Attributing a latitude and longitude to each spectrum collected, unique chemical fingerprints from clandestine manufacture are then mapped. This location-based mass spectrum data provides a localization to an area of interest. The synthesis of methamphetamine precursors was performed, and the impurities from such reactions were observed. A mock manufacture was setup, and the impurities were introduced into the atmosphere via heating. The detection of products and impurities using this mobile platform has shown the effectiveness of locating and localizing the manufacture of methamphetamine.

Impurity Profiling of Street Methamphetamine Samples Seized in Kermanshah,Iran with Special Focus on Methamphetamine Impurities Health Hazards

Objective: Methamphetamine abuse remains a significant public health concern since its assent to peak popularity in Iran. Methamphetamine possesses one of the most domestic markets among other drugs of abuse in Kermanshah, Iran. Clandestine methamphetamine laboratories employ different methods and consequently a wide range of chemicals for the illicit production of methamphetamine. Yet there is limited information about active pharmaceutical ingredients in methamphetamine samples seized in Kermanshah, Iran. The current study aimed to identify active pharmaceutical ingredients and manufacturing by-products in methamphetamine samples seized in Kermanshah, Iran. As no organ in the body remains unscathed by methamphetamine and its impurities abuse, the other purpose of the present study was to discuss health effects associated with impure methamphetamine abuse in a brief review.

Accumulation of gas-phase methamphetamine on clothing, toy fabrics, and skin oil.

To better understand methamphetamine exposure and risk for occupants of former residential clandestine methamphetamine laboratories, we measured the dynamic accumulation of methamphetamine in skin oil, cotton and polyester (PE) clothing, upholstery, and toy fabric (substrates) exposed to 15-30 ppb (91-183 μg/m(3)) neutral methamphetamine in air for up to 60 days. The average equilibrium partition coefficients at 30% RH, in units of μg of methamphetamine per gram of substrate per ppb, are 3.0 ± 0.2 for a PE baby blanket, 5.6 ± 3.5 for a PE fabric toy, 3.7 ± 0.2 for a PE shirt, 18.3 ± 8.0 for a PE/cotton upholstery fabric, and 1200 ± 570 in skin oil. The partition coefficients at 60% RH are 4.5 ± 0.4, 5.2 ± 2.1, 4.5 ± 0.6, 36.1 ± 3.6, and 1600 ± 1100 μg/(g ppb), respectively. There was no difference in the partition coefficient for a clean and skin-oil-soiled cotton shirt [15.3 ± 2.1 μg/(g ppb) @ 42 days]. Partition coefficients for skin oil may be sensitive to composition. 'Mouthing' of cloth is predicted to be the dominant exposure pathway [60 μg/(kg body weight*ppb)] for a toddler in former meth lab, and indoor air concentrations would have to be very low (0.001 ppb) to meet the recommended reference dose for children. Gas-phase methamphetamine transfers to and accumulates on clothing, toys and other fabrics significantly increases risk of ingestion of methamphetamine. Current remediation methods should consider measurement of postremediation gas-phase air concentrations of methamphetamine in addition to surface wipe samples.

The advent of a new pseudoephedrine product to combat methamphetamine abuse

Background: The personal and societal effects of methamphetamine abuse are well documented. The ease of accessibility to methamphetamine and the quality of the “high” it produces makes the drug highly desired by its abusers. Over time, many methamphetamine users will also become methamphetamine cooks, where pseudoephedrine in over-the-counter cold products is converted to methamphetamine through a simple, albeit extremely dangerous, process. New laws limiting access to these products have had limited success. No existing commercial pseudoephedrine products offer significant impediments to slow or limit the extraction and conversion of pseudoephedrine in clandestine methamphetamine laboratories. Objective and Methods: A new pseudoephedrine 30 mg tablet product using Impede technology (Nexafed®) to deter methamphetamine production has recently been introduced into the marketplace. Using methods designed to mimic clandestine laboratory processes, the ability of this product to disrupt extraction and conversion of pseudoephedrine to methamphetamine yet provide therapeutic effectiveness was evaluated. Results: Impede™ technology tablets limited the extraction and/or conversion of pseudoephedrine to methamphetamine when compared to a commercially marketed pseudoephedrine product (Sudafed®). Nexafed® tablets were also shown to be bioequivalent to the same control product, thus ensuring therapeutic equivalence. Conclusions: With the advent of new pseudoephedrine products in the marketplace with features to limit the extraction and conversion of pseudoephedrine to methamphetamine, new tools are now available to minimize the clandestine manufacture of the drug and potentially limit its social impact.

Ion Mobility Spectrometry as a Tool in Evaluating the Efficacy of Cleaning Protocol for Clandestine Methamphetamine Laboratory Remediation

Ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) is frequently used to gauge the success of remediation in clandestine methamphetamine laboratory sites due to portability of the instrument. In most cases, remediation involves some form of surface cleaning, followed by assaying using IMS to detect residual contaminants. However, the effectiveness of this cleaning approach has not been systematically evaluated nor has the effect of residual cleaner on IMS response. In this study, various building materials were exposed to a solution of methamphetamine followed by a series of cleaning cycles with a commercially available detergent, Simple Green. We found that cleaning using Simple Green requires exhaustive efforts; therefore, other cleaning agents should be explored that might be able to achieve a non-detectable IMS signal with less effort.

Detection of methamphetamine in indoor air using dynamic solid phase microextraction: a supplementary method to surface wipe sampling

Surface wipe sampling for methamphetamine is a standard protocol in many jurisdictions for sampling at suspected or known former clandestine methamphetamine laboratories, but this method relies on samples being taken from representatively contaminated surfaces. We have investigated whether a rapid sampling method for airborne methamphetamine can be used to supplement surface sampling. A dynamic solid phase microextraction (SPME) field sampler was constructed and tested in the field and in the laboratory. This device enabled large volumes of air to be passed over SPME fibres exposed during the comparatively short time (<2 h) that a testing company might be present at a former clandestine laboratory. The collected samples were then analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Airborne methamphetamine was detected with this method at former clandestine methamphetamine laboratory sites where surface wipe sampling showed surface methamphetamine concentrations greater than 40 μg/100 cm2.

Pseudoephedrine Sales and Seizures of Clandestine Methamphetamine Laboratories in Kentucky

To the Editor: The illicit production of methamphetamine from the precursor pseudoephedrine in clandestine laboratories fuels up to 35% of the domestic supply.1 Public health, law enforcement, and medical associations support restricted access to methamphetamine precursors; manufacturers oppose restrictions.

Characterization and validation of ion mobility spectrometry in methamphetamine clandestine laboratory remediation

This project evaluated the efficacy of ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) as a tool for determining remediation success at clandestine methamphetamine laboratory sites. Specifically, limits of detection (LOD), limits of quantitation (LOQ), and matrix effects were investigated as relevant to typical remediation sites and situations. The recoveries of pseudoephedrine and methamphetamine from a range of various surfaces likely to be found in a clandestine laboratory were examined. Portable IMS instruments with thermal desorption were found to be a reliable tool for evaluating the degree of remediation if sufficient procedural and instrumental controls are put into place. In general, detection limits were in the same range as state guidelines as well as laboratory methods using GC/MS and LC/MS. Direct vapor sampling can be used to detect high levels of methamphetamine and potential interferences, but cannot approach the detection limits needed for evaluation of remediation efforts. IMS cannot be used alone to determine the efficacy of remediation efforts; final confirmation using laboratory instrumentation is essential. For the purpose of this study, typical field settings of the IMS were used and the conditions were not optimized.

Evidence of Methamphetamine Exposure in Children Removed From Clandestine Methamphetamine Laboratories

To determine whether asymptomatic children removed from clandestine methamphetamine laboratories have evidence of exposure to methamphetamine. Retrospective chart review of children removed from law enforcement-certified clandestine methamphetamine laboratories in the Tulsa area of Oklahoma and Sacramento County, California. Exposure was determined by positive urine toxicology for methamphetamine. One hundred four children were evaluated after removal from clandestine methamphetamine laboratories. Forty-eight children (46%) tested positive for methamphetamine. Timed urine results were known for 68 of 104, with no child testing positive after 6.5 hours from being removed from the laboratory. No child required emergency medical treatment at the time urine samples were obtained. Almost half of the children in this sample had evidence of exposure to methamphetamine soon after removal from methamphetamine manufacturing environments. Further research is indicated to determine the health effects of subclinical methamphetamine exposure.

Recoveries of trace pseudoephedrine and methamphetamine residues from impermeable household surfaces: Implications for sampling methods used during remediation of clandestine methamphetamine laboratories

Evaluation of the risk posed by contaminants present during and after decontamination of clandestine methamphetamine laboratories requires a connection between the levels of contaminants measured and those actually present at the scene. The recoveries of pseudoephedrine and methamphetamine from glass, stainless steel, and a range of impermeable surfaces likely to be found in a clandestine laboratory were examined, using GC-MS of derivatized samples as the analytical method. When surfaces had been cleaned prior to drug deposition, wiping with water-dampened filter paper can recover 60-80% of pseudoephedrine immediately after deposition, and at least 50% of the pseudoephedrine still present on a surface after 2 days when deposited at a surface concentration of 2.5 microg/100 cm(2). Wiping with methanol-dampened filter paper could recover 60-90% of the methamphetamine immediately after deposition, and could recover at least 50-60% of the methamphetamine still present after 2 days when 0.6 microg/100 cm(2) was initially deposited on the surface. Recoveries were lower for surfaces that had not been pre-cleaned. Methamphetamine and pseudoephedrine showed significant volatility in both the free base and hydrochloride forms, with experiments in an enclosed format showing up to half the recovered drug being present on a glass plate held about 4mm above a substrate contaminated with one of the drugs at the above surface concentrations after 2 days. It is therefore important to remove any visible bulk contaminants and remove obvious pseudoephedrine or methamphetamine-contaminated surfaces prior to heating, ventilation or sealing of a clandestine laboratory to avoid redistribution of material around the site. A revised method for pseudoephedrine analysis was developed that could also detect the pseudoephedrine-formaldehyde adduct that can form from trace pseudoephedrine present at clandestine laboratories.

Responding to Clandestine Methamphetamine Manufacturing: A Case Study in Situational Crime Prevention

During the 1990s, Oklahoma experienced an increase in clandestine methamphetamine laboratories in operation in the state. Identifying and responding to this problem became a law enforcement priority. Clandestine laboratories were extremely dangerous and volatile, as they posed great risks to individuals and local communities. Initial efforts to control the problem proved difficult, given the availability of all the key ingredients and supplies. In response to this problem, the Oklahoma Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (OBNDD) worked to inform the Oklahoma legislature, which passed a number of laws aimed at affecting clandestine manufacturing. This case study explores Oklahoma’s legislative responses to methamphetamine manufacturing and retroactively examines whether these laws fit within the situational crime prevention perspective.

Death of a toddler due to ingestion of sulfuric acid at a clandestine home methamphetamine laboratory

Exposure to strong acids such as sulfuric acid to either the skin or the gastrointestinal or respiratory mucosa will result respectively in significant-occasionally fatal-cutaneous chemical burns as well as devastating corrosive damage to the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. Most injuries are accidental, but there are reports of using acids as weapons or as a means of suicide. The primary mechanism of acid injury is coagulative necrosis of the tissues. Sulfuric acid is a chemical often used in industrial and chemical laboratories, and it is an ingredient in household products like drain cleaner. Easily accessible, over-the-counter, household drain cleaner is one of several common materials used to manufacture methamphetamine. With increasing clandestine methamphetamine laboratories in the United States, exposure to methamphetamine and the toxic chemicals used for its production is a growing problem. In many instances, children living in these laboratories qua homes are at risk for injury and death. We report the death of an unattended toddler, who ingested sulfuric acid drain cleaner in his home. The gross and histopathological autopsy findings in this case are similar to those of previously described cases of sulfuric acid injury.

A 24-Hour Study to Investigate Persistent Chemical Exposures Associated with Clandestine Methamphetamine Laboratories

The clandestine manufacture of methamphetamine continues to be a concern across the United States. Although the exposures associated with the actual production process have been evaluated, the persistence of those exposures in a residential setting have not been investigated. This study was designed to document the contamination associated with two red phosphorous methamphetamine “cooks” conducted in a residence and the associated exposures up to 24 hours after the cook. The two cooks were conducted on the first day of the study, and exposures associated with different occupant activity levels were measured the following day. Airborne methamphetamine levels during the cook ranged from 520 μg/m3 to 760 μg/m3. On Day 2, airborne levels of methamphetamine ranged from 70 μg/m3 to 210 μg/m3 and increased with moderate to high activity levels within the residence. The majority of the methamphetamine measured during both days had a particle size of less than 1 μm, suggesting that the methamphetamine is formed as a condensation aerosol and is readily resuspended from contaminated surfaces. Significant methamphetamine contamination was found in the carpeting and likely was associated with the elevated levels of methamphetamine during activity. Levels of hydrogen chloride and iodine were also detected on Day 2 of the project although at very low levels. The study concluded that exposures may still present a significant inhalation exposure well after the actual cook.

An Analysis of Clandestine Methamphetamine Laboratory Seizures in Oklahoma

This study examines the characteristics and geographical distribution of clandestine methamphetamine laboratory seizures in Oklahoma during the height of the clandestine manufacturing problem and after legislative restrictions on precursor chemicals were implemented. Data on clandestine laboratory seizures in Oklahoma from 2001 to 2005 were analyzed to understand the characteristics of laboratories with regard to seizure location, laboratory size, laboratory type, manufacturing processes, and type of equipment utilized. County-level thematic maps of the geographical distribution of laboratory seizures before and after the passage of legislation placing restrictions on the sales of precursor chemicals across the state are presented.

Chemical concentrations and contamination associated with clandestine methamphetamine laboratories

We conducted a study to determine the chemical exposures associated with the clandestine manufacture of methamphetamine. Two scenarios were utilized, sampling at actual clandestine laboratories as they were being raided by law enforcement (Scenario 1) and sampling at controlled “cooks” conducted in houses to be destroyed (Scenario 2). Sampling during Scenario 1 revealed that most suspected laboratories had significant amounts of methamphetamine surface contamination throughout the suspected “cook” area. Levels of hydrocarbons, phosphine, iodine, and inorganic acids were unremarkable in these inactive laboratories. Sampling during the controlled cooks (Scenario 2) revealed high concentrations of phosphine, iodine, anhydrous ammonia, and hydrogen chloride during the “cooking” process. Anhydrous ammonia and hydrogen chloride were detected at levels that exceed NIOSH Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH) levels. An aerosol of methamphetamine was also created during the process resulting in surface contamination within the structure as well as contamination on the clothing of the individuals participating in the “cooking” process. Based on our study, individuals entering a suspected clandestine methamphetamine laboratory should wear chemically resistant protective clothing and use a self-contained breathing apparatus. Individuals entering the suspected laboratory should also assume that items and persons associated with the “cook” area are chemically contaminated and need to be decontaminated.