Civil Ones Research Articles

An explorative Bayesian analysis of functional dependencies in emergency management systems

AbstractThe study of emergency or crisis management practices acquires strategical relevance for resilient decision‐making under uncertainty. The assessment of system resilience is an asset to identify potential design or operational improvements of a complex socio‐technical system, such as an Emergency Management (EM) system. This research aims at analyzing the functional properties of an EM system recurring to a novel integration of the Functional Resonance Analysis Method (FRAM) and Bayesian Belief Networks (BBN). The FRAM is used to model and display the actors and the interactions in the system, while the BBN, dynamically updated when new data becomes available, supports a complementary quantitative assessment. The methodology is iterated in the analysis of an EM procedure, issued by a second‐line Emergency Response organization for Oil and Gas (O&G) operators in Norwegian continental shelf. The results of the study show that the proposed stochastic methodology compensates the drawbacks of traditional FRAM modeling, via the outcomes of BBN quantitative analyses. The findings, contextualized in EM, can be transferred to different socio‐technical contexts, both military and civil ones.

Publichnyi dohovir u merezhi «Internet» ta novely zakonodavstva pro tsyfrovyi kontent

The article examines the peculiarities of a public contract on the Internet. This is a type of legal relationship in the digital environment. It has been proven that some of the contracts on the Internet are public. If contracts on the Internet contain signs of a public contract, the rules on a public contract apply to them. Currently, there is no comprehensive list of public contracts in the Civil Code of Ukraine. This allows the application of legal norms to public contracts on the Internet. This is facilitated by the dispositive nature of civil law norms. It was concluded that the Internet is only a form of legal relations that exist in civil law. These legal relations are property or personal non-property. They take place in a digital environment. The Internet is a kind of digital form of legal relations, among which there are civil ones. Peculiarities of smart contracts have been studied. Some of them are characterized by public contracts. For example, a contract on registration on an Internet platform is public. Here, one party is the consumer, who receives the rights granted by the Internet platform. The second party is an entrepreneur who owns the rights to the Internet platform. Some smart contracts are not public contracts. For example, those that are arranged inside the Internet platform. In particular, this is a contract for the sale of NFTs. It is proposed to supplement the Civil Code of Ukraine. It is necessary to add provisions on smart contracts to it. These norms should be contained in the general provisions of the contract. Internet platforms for the sale of goods can mediate in the settlement of the dispute. They contribute to establishing contact and dialogue between the parties. This contributes to the protection of consumer

Rules of the organization of effective justice (guidelines) a tool for the application of judicial discretion and the exercise of discretionary powers of the court

The article analyzes the essence of the concepts of «discretionary powers» and «judicial discretion», their correlation; the essence of the concept of «guidelines», their legal nature and role as a tool for the application of judicial discretion in exercising discretionary powers by the court are defined. On the basis of a comparative analysis of the legal norms of civil and criminal procedural laws, the limits of the court's discretion, limits and direction of the judge's discretion are determined. It has been established that none of judicial proceeding can do without discretionary norms, and therefore without judicial discretion, however, the limits of discretion vary depending on the type of judicial proceeding and the stage of consideration of the case. This conclusion was made on the basis of a comparative analysis of the norms of civil and criminal procedural laws in terms of court evaluation of evidence. Thus, the difference in the discretionary powers of the court is due to the higher standard of proof in criminal proceedings, compared with civil ones. On the basis of the analysis of the functions of punishment and the principle of its individualization, a conclusion was made about the direction of judicial discretion in the exercise of discretionary powers during the imposition of punishment and, thus, it was demonstrated that discretionary powers are a specific means of legal protection. Discretionary powers and judicial discretion are independent concepts. In procedural codes, discretion begins with issues of recusals/self-recusals and ends with the imposition of punishment (in criminal proseedings). On the basis of the analysis of the provisions of procedural norms (civil and criminal), which determine the grounds for the removal of a judge, in particular, «the presence of other circumstances that raise doubts about the judge's impartiality», a conclusion was made about the possibility of such an interpretation that would allow arbitrariness, abuse and even corruption risks. The unpredictability and lack of understanding of the grounds for recusal in the absence of unanimous practice of national courts may call into question the guarantees provided for in Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights, namely the right to a fair trial. The essence of the guidelines comes down to the fact that judges, having determined the range of issues that cause the most controversy and in respect of which the legislation allows wide discretion, formulate a certain set of rules, how they generally interpret the corresponding «discretionary norms». The range of issues, the solution of which can be unified by including them in guidelines, can be as follows: valid reasons for postponing the trial; establishment of regulations for the speeches of the participants; order of calls and notifications of the parties; the procedure for agreeing the dates of court sessions, etc. The advantages of guidelines are named. Thus, discretionary powers are defined as the legislative basis for the application of judicial discretion – the intellectual and volitional activity of a judge, the direction of which is determined by the observance of the rule of law. Guidelines are rules of soft law that determine how judges apply judicial discretion to the discretionary powers granted to them. Key words: rules of the organization of effective justice, guidelines, judicial discretion, discretionary powers, standart of proof, rule of law

VIETNAMESE LOCAL CIVIL SERVANTS' PUBLIC SERVICE ETHICS AND CULTURE

Vietnamese local civil servants, which are mainly commune-level civil ones, are identified with the roles and responsibilities of implementing the nation's policies while providing services to a population diversity in ethnicity, culture, and religion. The local population's characteristics are the determining factors, creating the commune-level civil servants' civil service culture, ethics and affecting the outcomes of their work performance. This paper focuses on the analysis of the effects of civil service culture and ethics on the performance outcomes of commune-level civil servants. After developing a theoretical framework for the study, the author polled 360 respondents who had at least three transactions with their local commune government in the last five years. The survey's goal is to gather public opinions on civil service culture and ethics, and work performance results of commune-level civil servants in the locality. Vietnam's five provinces under study are Nam Đinh and Thai Binh (in the North), Quang Tri (in the Central), and Đong Nai, Tay Ninh (in the South). According to research findings, people undervalue the civil service culture of commune-level civil servants, which has an impact on their ability to perform tasks. Accordingly, the author suggests that local features should be taken into account in the field of governance in order to improve the quality of Vietnam's commune-level civil servants.

Why do young people engage in some civic actions and not others? Exploring the roles of individual and collective civic efficacy

AbstractCivic actions are behaviours intended to improve conditions for others or help shape a community's future. Such actions vary widely from voting to voluntary helping, from canvassing to community organizing, and attempts have been made to categorize the array of civic actions. However, the question of why young adults engage in some types of civic actions versus others is not well understood. Using data from 598 White, cisgender, heterosexual young adults in the United States, we examined the relations between individual civic efficacy, collective civic efficacy, and seven actions: writing social media posts, voting, buycotting, volunteering, participating in an organization, supporting political candidates, and protesting. We hypothesized that individual efficacy would be positively related to all seven actions, but collective efficacy would be more strongly related to collective or political actions, compared to the individual or civil ones. Logistic regression analyses showed that individual efficacy positively predicted engagement in all seven civic actions. Individual and collective efficacy had a complex curvilinear relation with buycotting and supporting political candidates. Implications for future research and applications aimed at promoting civic engagement amongst young adults are discussed. Please refer to the Supplementary Material section to find this article's Community and Social Impact Statement.

Развитие на административното наказване в годините след Освобождението и обособяването му в самостоятелно административнонаказателно производство

The subject of this article is the development of the administrative penalty in the years after the Liberation of Bulgaria and its establishment as independent administrative criminal proceedings. Administrative sanctions in Bulgaria existed even before the adoption of the current Law on Administrative Violations and Penalties (LAVP) in 1969, although not independently. This law regulates the legal definition of administrative violation: a human act expressed through action or inaction contrary to the established order of the ruling socialist government. With the adoption of LAVP and the repeal of Chapter XXVIII of the Bulgarian Code of Criminal Procedure of 1952, the administrative process is separated as independent along with the criminal and civil ones. LAVP already represents a systematic construction of substantive and procedural norms with global and developed sanctions.

Seeing red: Reading uncivil news comments guided by personality characteristics

Whether on a news or a social networking site, comments following news stories are often beset with incivility. Assailed as diminishing constructive dialogue in a digital public sphere, uncivil comments nevertheless require deeper scrutiny to better understand their pervasiveness and, among some, popularity. This article uses a Uses and Gratifications framework to understand why certain people are more drawn to uncivil comments than civil ones. Using eye-tracking technology, this research compares the attention a reader gives to uncivil comments and compares it against certain personality characteristics. Findings suggest that certain readers spend more time reading uncivil comments than civil ones.

The Emergence and Evolution of Criminal Tattoos in Russia

The article analyzes various points of view on the emerging of criminal tattoos in Russia, follows the stages of their evolution. Tattoo systematic character is particularly noted, as well as the beginning of its study in the 20-30s of the twentieth century. The author gives five stable modern groups of tattoos. The proposed scientific material is a continuation of the author's two previous articles on criminal pictographic bodyart published in the journal "Jurislinguistics" (see Grachev M.A. Problems of studying pictographic writing by linguistic experts //JURISLINGUISTICS, 2021. No.20(31). pp.9-13; Grachev M.A. On the construction of a methodology for establishing a person's belonging to the highest criminal hierarchy according to pictographic criminal writing JURISLINGUISTICS, 2021. No.21(32). pp.26-30).
 The periodization of the emerging of pictographic criminal bodyart deserves special attention in the article: the author identifies five stages of its existence.
 It is important to note that tattoo looks remained stable from the 30s to the 70s of the twentieth century. This was due to the strong positions of the elite of the criminal world – code-bound thieves. In the 70s, when the erosion of the "thieves' idea" begins, a number of tattoos lose their original meaning, especially tattoo drawings. The article focuses on the practical use of scientific material, namely: a researcher (prosecutor, court, lawyer, etc.) needs theoretical knowledge about theemerging of tattoos in Russia. These data will be in special demand by linguist-experts.The author of the article emphasizes that a significant part of criminal tattoos is already losing its original meaning, and there is also a mixture of criminal tattoos with civil ones.

Dance in the Salons: Waltzes, Polkas and Quadrilles in Serbian Piano Music of the 19th Century

As public events, balls had an important role in social life among the Serbs in the Habsburg monarchy in the 19th century. They were organised by the aristocracy and citizens, various associations and ethnic groups. The most prestigious were the so-called “nobles”, id est aristocratic balls, while the civil ones were less elegant. A repertoire of dances was to some extent conditioned by the type of the ball. Waltz, polka and gallop were very popular at civil balls, as well as stylised Serbian folk dances, such as kolo. At noble balls, on the other hand, besides waltzes, polkas and gallops, it was quadrilles and cotillions that enjoyed special popularity. On the other hand, in the young Principality of Serbia, the organisation of the balls began in the 1860’s, both at the prince’s court and in better hotels in Belgrade. In the 1860’s, the ball season in Belgrade was opened by Prince Mihailo Obrenović. The dancing repertoire included Serbian folk and civil dances, as well as modern European dances. Following the example of larger European cities, a trend of dancing in salons was as well widespread among the Serbs. Socialising could spontaneously grow into dancing, and sometimes dancing was the expected grand finale of the evening. In salons one could dance for family entertainment, without guests. In court and civil salons in Belgrade, the gatherings, almost as a rule, ended with dancing of popular international and Serbian folk dances. International salon dances make up about a third of the salon music repertoire for piano. The polka is one of the most frequent international dancing genres in the Serbian piano music of the 19th century. Besides the polka, there are other subtypes of this dance: the polka-mazurka, the polka française, the schnell polka, the polka tremblante, the galopp polka, the polka valse and the polka caprice. After the polka, the waltz is the most frequent international dance genre in the Serbian piano music. Besides the waltzes originally written for the orchestra, numerous waltzes were composed for the piano. The popularity of quadrilles in ballrooms is also reflected in the albums of salon music for the piano. This dance genre, which was composed in a potpourri manner, was especially suitable for having the melodies of popular folk and civil songs arranged in it. While in the first half of the 19th century melodies in the quadrilles were either transcribed from popular operettas or operas, or were originally written by composers, in the second half of the century composers mostly resorted to melodies of Serbian or Slavic folk and civil songs. In the second half of the 19th century, Serbian folk dances, such as kolos, took over the ballrooms and the albums of salon music alike. The approval of the Serbian identity was sought in the kolo, and the emphasis on national characteristics through music was politically dominant in the 19th century.

HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF ATTRACTING AND REORIENTING NON-MILITARY ENTERPRISES AND ORGANIZATIONS OF THE USSR TO PRODUCE MILITARY PRODUCTS DURING THE GREAT PATRIOTIC WAR

From the first days of military actions in the Great Patriotic war, all the activities of the Soviet troops required providing and further use of a large number of material resources: equipment, weapons, ammunition, food, etc. In conditions of an acute shortage of property for the defense purposes, many enterprises began to adjust to produce military products, thereby providing comprehensively the defensive measures in the initial period of the war, and later – successful advance of the Soviet troops. The article carries out the historical analysis of attracting and reorienting non-military enterprises and organizations of the USSR to produce military products during the Great Patriotic war. It gives numerous examples of civilian enterprises reorientation to produce weapons, ammunition, equipment, products, and medicines. Special emphasis is placed on restructuring the heavy industry as the main supplier of military equipment. The article reviews and analyzes the conditions under which efficient mass production was organized, which consists of a sequential performing operations that do not require a high qualification from the workers, but at this reduce the time for the production of an article due to fragmentation of processes. It is emphasized that reorientation of Soviet non-military enterprises and organizations of the USSR to produce military products took place in a very short time, which in principle did not affect the increase in the number of manufactured products. It is concluded that organization of large-scale weapons production at non-military enterprises of the country was achieved by upgrading the equipment, applying new production methods, improving technological schedules, close interaction of enterprises, and other measures. It is emphasized that historical experience convincingly proves that the military situation in a state, as a rule, affects not only military enterprises and organizations of the state, but civil ones as well. The authors put emphasis upon the heroic labor feat performed by the civilian population in the most difficult years for the country. The need for further study of the issue under consideration is actualized, including for the purpose of patriotic education of the younger generation.

The concept and legal nature of corporate relations: the position of doctrine and judicial practice

Nowadays the processes of democratization, liberalization, integration of Ukraine into European and world space take place. Theundisputed significance for these processes is the signing of the Association Agreement between Ukraine and the European Union.Thus, the rapprochement of Ukraine with the European community, which has taken place in recent years, affects the sphere of privatelaw relations, which make up the subject matter of civil law. Taking all mentioned above into account corporate relations and its nationalregulation is critical issue for analysis.The provisions of national legislation regarding the definition of corporate rights and respective legal relations are analyzed. Specialattention is paid to the position of the civil law doctrine representatives in terms of legal nature and features of corporate legal relations.Analysis of current doctrine gives ground to state that corporate relations are considered to be a special type of civil legal relationsthat make up the subject of civil law. At the same time recognition of corporate relations as a type of civil ones makes it possible to useall the civil law tools and mechanism of legal protection and enforcement for corporate relations regulation.The relevant practice of the highest judicial bodies of Ukraine is analyzed. The analysis of the legislation and judicial practicehas given an opportunity to stress some problems that need to be eliminated. To our mind, one of the main problems is “fragmentation”of the legislator’s attention to the definition of corporate legal relations, which creates the ground for numerous discussions. At the sametime there are critical problems in judicial practice. For instance, we cannot agree with the Supreme Court’s attempts to find corporatelegal relations in those types of legal entities in which such legal relations do not take place at all.It is crucial to stress that recodification of civil legislation in Ukraine has its direct impact on private legal relations system andits mechanism of legal regulations.

TERPENUHIKAH UNSUR PIDANA PENGUASAAN TANAH YANG SAMA-SAMA BELUM MEMILIKI SERTIFIKAT TANDA BUKTI HAK

Law in Indonesia adheres to the Continental European legal system which is divided into two groups, namely the field of public law and the field of private law. Public law is a law that has a scope of legal subject to dispute with legal objects, namely state administration law, state administrative law, and criminal law. While private law is a field of law that has the scope of affairs of legal subjects that conflict with other legal subjects. But sometimes law enforcement often fails to understand these two legal systems, which cannot distinguish between criminal and civil ones, thus confusing civil cases that are made criminal cases and criminal cases used as civil cases for various reasons.

Los derechos sociales como derechos «de segunda»: razones frecuentes y visiones críticas

En este artículo indago sobre la exigibilidad de los derechos sociales a partir de visiones críticas que formulan autores que entienden a la democracia como una conversación entre iguales (Habermas, Nino, Gargarella, Alegre, Atria). Particularmente, examino algunas razones que han contribuido a reducirlos a «derechos de segunda», frente a los civiles y políticos. En ese cometido evalúo dos categorías de frecuente uso en el discurso de los derechos humanos: la que los califica según sean (o no) operativos y la que los separa por generaciones. A partir de allí doy cuenta de la convergencia existente entre las categorías «derechos de segunda generación» y «derechos programáticos». Luego describo visiones críticas de esa reducción, para sugerir que garantizar derechos sociales puede mejorar el valor sustantivo y el valor epistémico de los procesos democráticos. Finalmente, apunto algunas reflexiones provisorias.

Female Muslim Organizations in Tatarstan: Between Traditionalization and Modernization

The article deals with the formation of female Muslim organizations and their activities in the Republic of Tatarstan after the collapse of the Soviet Union. The study corroborates the idea that at practical and ideological levels these organizations nurture both the traditional and modern values. This observation is true for organizations associated with mosques, as well as independent civil ones. The combination of diff erent values may be explained by two reasons. First, by external infl uence of the secularized context of modern society; second, by secular experience of the Muslim activists. For some Muslim organizations, it is also important to appeal to regional history, including the pre-1917 female Islamic associations that came into being as an outcome of emancipation in the religious community.The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.

ПРОДОВЖЕННЯ ДИСКУСІЇ НА ТЕМУ СПІВВІДНОШЕННЯ ВІДНОСИН ЕКСПРОПРІАЦІЇ ТА КУПІВЛІ-ПРОДАЖУ

Purpose. The purpose of the article is ongoing discussion regarding the correlation between expropriation (namely – the purchase of private property objects for public use) and sales, expanding the arguments in favor of inexpediency of their identification and further determining the need to abandon the use of civil agreements in the expropriation procedure. Methods. The research methodology consists of general and special methods of scientific cognition, including historical and legal, comparative and legal, systematic and structural methods, deduction, induction, analysis, synthesis, etc. Results. The author, in the first part of the article, briefly studies the main arguments of scholars, which were put forward in the pre-revolutionary period to support and criticize the idea of defining expropriation as forced sales. The author formulates the preconditions for the use of civil agreements in the expropriation procedure and comes to the conclusion that there were no necessary conditions for settling redemption issues for public needs without private law instruments in pre-revolutionary times. In the second part of the article, the author lists the main differences between the relations of expropriation and sales, which are covered in the modern Ukrainian scientific literature, and supplements it with the own analysis of the differences between them. Conclusions. The analysis carried out in the article demonstrates that the relationships of redemption for public needs are not relationships of sales, and cannot be recognized as civil ones on the grounds that the expropriation procedure involves the conclusion of the purchase and sale agreement. The author pays attention to the fact that legal instruments that logically mediate the civil relations of sales – are not intended and should not be used in atypical situations. The author offers to consider the possibility of introducing a new instrument for Ukraine – an expropriation agreement – into legal circulation, which can correct the shortcomings of the current legislation.

Educación para la Ciudadanía en España. Una asignatura para la confrontación ideológica y política

En España vivimos una de las cuestiones más controvertidas de la educación por la implantación de Educación para la Ciudadanía y los Derechos Humanos, una materia escolar recomendada reiteradamente por la Unión Europea y organismos internacionales. Esta polémica trascendió lo educativo al responder a una estrategia política revestida de argumentos religiosos basados en axiomas profundamente antidemocráticos. La presente investigación utiliza el método histórico aplicado al análisis del currículo. La documentación utilizada procede, principalmente, de la prescripción curricular, fuentes hemerográficas y judiciales. Su análisis ha permitido centrarnos en cómo los colectivos más tradicionales de la sociedad utilizaron el espacio público para perpetuar su poder y control, frenando cambios en el currículo y en la práctica educativa. El artículo pretende evidenciar la existencia de una concatenación de acciones perfectamente acompasadas y secuenciadas con la intención de obstaculizar la implantación de la materia y mantener la hegemonía de unos particulares valores religiosos por encima de los civiles. Una confrontación latente que espera su reactivación.

ACCOMMODATING RELIGIOUS LAW WITH A CIVIL LEGAL SYSTEM: LESSONS FROM THE JEWISH LAW EXPERIENCE IN FINANCIAL FAMILY MATTERS

AbstractThe discussion of legal pluralism focuses on the coexistence of several legal systems, mainly religious and civil ones. But what happens when a process of assimilation—whether imposed or voluntary—characterizes the relationships between the systems? This article analyzes the fascinating process of assimilation of civil principles into religious law in the context of Jewish law and Israeli civil family law. Assimilation, as the article shows, is not the whole picture. The article reveals a corresponding (both open and implicit) struggle for the preservation of religious law principles despite the continuing efforts of civil law for their curtailment, or sometimes, elimination. The result, which is somewhat internally contradictory, suggests a normative pluralistic framework that enables both regimes—the civil and the religious—to preserve their core principles in family law matters.

Rights or Wishes? Conflicting Views over Human Rights and America’s Involvement in the Nicaraguan Contra War

ABSTRACTNon-governmental organisations [NGOs] sought to expand American conceptions of human rights and contributed to shaping the American debate over Nicaragua policy in the 1980s. Progressive NGOs interpreted human rights to include political and civil liberties along with social and economic ones, an interpretation similar to that of the Nicaraguan government and embodied in Nicaraguan democracy. The Ronald Reagan Administration interpreted human rights narrowly to include only political and civil ones whilst recognising electoral politics as the essential ingredient of democracy. The Administration also considered the defeat of communism as its highest priority. Calling the Sandinistas, which controlled the Nicaraguan government after July 1979, both communist and allies of the Soviets and Cubans, Reagan’s anti-communism led him to support a counterrevolutionary force in Nicaragua—the Contras. NGOs and members of Congress regularly accused the Contras of human rights abuse; and NGOs used a lexicon of human rights to oppose Reagan’s Nicaragua policy and challenge the Cold War construct.

О НЕОБХОДИМОСТИ СОВЕРШЕНСТВОВАНИЯ МУНИЦИПАЛЬНОГО ЗАКОНОДАТЕЛЬСТВА В ОБЛАСТИ ОКАЗАНИЯ УСЛУГ ПО ПРЕДОСТАВЛЕНИЮ ЗЕМЕЛЬНОГО УЧАСТКА ДЛЯ ПОГРЕБЕНИЯ УМЕРШЕГО

the draft Administrative regulations of the municipal service "Provision of land for the burial of the deceased", which is a normative legal act of the relevant municipality, are analyzed. The author comes to the conclusion that the municipal normative legal acts regulating the activity of specialized services on the funeral business in the field of services for the provision of land for the burial of the deceased, do not always comply with the current legislation, which leads to corruption, to the failure of the funeral and to the formation of illegal burial places, which residents The situation could be rectified by the denationalization of the market of municipal burial services through the use of the mechanism of municipal-private partnership. The most important means of regulating relations between funeral and funeral service providers and consumers should be recognized not as administrative and legal means, but as civil ones.

PRAWNOKARNA ODPOWIEDZIALNOŚĆ SĘDZIEGO ŹLE WYPEŁNIAJĄCEGO SWOJE OFFICIUM

The Criminal Liability of a Judge Wrongly Fulfilling His officiumSummaryBribing judges was an indispensable element of the lawsuits, especially criminal, which is reflected both in the acts issued to prevent bribery and the literature.The oldest regulations concerning this issue are included in the Law of the XII Tables, which were handed down by Aulus Gellius. It is evident from this Law that index or arbiter who adjudged in favour of the person from whom he received money, was sentenced to death. The issue of corruption appears also in the sources of the late republic. It is evident that the attempts to fight against the judges’ corruption were made in a series of acts, among others, in lex Sempronia ne quis iudicio circumveniretur. This act concerned only those who had the senatorial status and who sentenced the accused not because he was guilty but because they were bribed. In the period of the early principate and probably until the end of the classical law era, the liability of the judge was regulated above all by two acts: lex Cornelia de sicariis and lex Iulia de repetundis. However, on the basis of the passages referring to the scope of applying lex Cornelia in the principate period it appears that it is impossible to point the particular stages of the development of a corruptible judge’s liability. It can be only supposed that the original scope of the act’s applicability to the cases threatened with a death sentence in which the acquittal of the accused was adjudged, was later broadened to other crimes. Whereas, on the basis of legis Iuliae the one who, after taking a bribe, sentenced, acquitted or gave yet another verdict in compliance with the briber’s wish, was liable to a penalty. It should be stressed that this law referred not only to judges in criminal cases but also in civil ones (iudexzs well as arbiter). According to Paulus who comments on the act, lex Cornelia de sicariis provided deportation to an isle and confiscation of the property, whereas the penalty provided for in lex Iulia de pecuniis repetundis, as reported by Macer, was an exile. In case of more serious crimes such as accepting property benefit and passing a death sentence to an innocent person, the penalty was death or deportation to an isle. Iudices pedanei provided for dismissal from the curia to which the judge belonged to or an exile. In the period of principate lex Cornelia testamentaria nummaria (de falsis) dated 81 BC, issued by Sulla, was applied to the liability of a judge. This act originally referred to cases of forging wills and coins and later also to cases of giving and receiving property benefits to present false evidence and bribe a judge. Lex Cornelia testamentaria provided for a death sentence in case of sentencing humiliores. Honestiores were treated in a more mild way since they were sentenced to the confiscation of property and exile with deprivation of citizenship.