Civil Engineering Industry Research Articles

Review Paper on Vibration Damping System Using Pendulum

Abstract: This paper explores the implementation and effectiveness of vibration damping systems utilizing pendulums, focusing on their ability to mitigate unwanted oscillations in various structures. Pendulum-based dampers operate on the principles of inertia and resonance, allowing them to counteract vibrations causedby dynamic loads, seismic events, and machinery operations. The study examines different configurations, including tuned mass dampers (TMDs) and nonlinear pendulum systems, highlighting their design, functionality,and specific applications in fields such as civil engineering, aerospace, and automotive industries. Through analytical modeling and experimental validation, the paper demonstrates the effectiveness of pendulum dampers in enhancing structural stability and occupant comfort. The results indicate significant reductions in vibration amplitude, showcasing the potential of these systems to improve the longevity andsafety of infrastructure. Furthermore, the discussion addresses the advantages of pendulum-based systems over conventional damping methods, emphasizing their adaptability and efficiency.In conclusion, this study underscores the importance of pendulum vibration damping systems as a viable solution for contemporary engineering challenges, paving the way for future research and development in vibration control technologies.

Study on Mechanical Properties of Basalt Fiber and its Composite Materials

With the development of civil engineering industry, the use of new composite materials has become an inevitable trend. This paper mainly focuses on the mechanical properties and development status of Basalt Fiber (BF) and its fiber composites which is called Basalt Fiber Reinforced Polymer (BFRP). The raw material of BFRP, the basalt ore and the preparation of blast furnace are discussed. Then, the preparation method of BFRP is introduced. In the process of research, it is found that when the preparation of BFRP is completed, the types of BFRP can be roughly divided into mixed reinforcement type and basic profile type. Subsequently, the factors affecting the mechanical properties of blast furnace are studied, which are mainly divided into interface modification and interface aging. In the aspect of interface modification, four modification methods such as acid-base etching modification, plasma surface treatment, silane coupling agent treatment and nanoparticle modification are introduced in detail. Finally, comparing BF with carbon fiber (CF), polyester fiber (PF) and glass fiber (GF), it is found that BF has better plasticity, toughness, good electrical insulation and low thermal conductivity. However, there are still many difficulties to be solved in the production, preparation, modification and application of BF and BFRP

Geometric analysis and local buckling behavior of wire arc additively manufactured ER110S cruciform section stub columns

The recent prominence and potential of wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) in the civil engineering industry have gained significant attention due to its ability to produce complex geometric shapes in a cost-effective and flexible manner. This paper presents the geometric analysis and local buckling behavior of WAAM ER110S cruciform section stub columns. A total of eight specimens with a broad range of width-to-thickness ratios were manufactured. 3D laser-scanning was conducted to capture the geometric characteristics of all the WAAM ER110S cruciform section stub column specimens. Material testing with coupons cut from various orientations of WAAM ER110S plates was performed and this is followed by the stub column testing where digital image correlation (DIC) was employed to monitor the full-field deformations of the specimens. The obtained test data were then employed to assess the applicability of current design rules specified in European, American and Australian standards to WAAM ER110S cruciform section stub columns. The assessment results revealed that (i) the current Class 3 slenderness limits (i.e. slender/non-slender slenderness limits) can be safely used for the classification of outstand plate elements of cruciform sections in compression and (ii) all the three specifications can lead to safe though marginally scattered failure load predictions of WAAM ER110S cruciform section stub columns.

Digital Twins and Civil Engineering Phases: Reorienting Adoption Strategies

Abstract Digital twin (DT) technology has received immense attention over the years due to the promises it presents to various stakeholders in science and engineering. As a result, different thematic areas of DT have been explored. This is no different in specific fields such as manufacturing, automation, oil and gas, and civil engineering, leading to fragmented approaches for field-specific applications. The civil engineering industry is further disadvantaged in this regard as it relies on external techniques by other engineering fields for its DT adoption. A rising consequence of these extensions is a concentrated application of DT to the operations and maintenance phase. On another spectrum, building information modeling (BIM) is pervasively utilized in the planning/design phase, and the transient nature of the construction phase remains a challenge for its DT adoption. In this article, we present a phase-based development of DT in the architecture, engineering, and construction industry. We commence by presenting succinct expositions on DT as a concept and as a service, and establish a five-level scale system. Furthermore, we present separately a systematic literature review of the conventional techniques employed at each civil engineering phase. In this regard, we identified enabling technologies such as computer vision for extended sensing and the Internet of things for reliable integration. Ultimately, we attempt to reveal DT as an important tool across the entire life cycle of civil engineering projects, and nudge researchers to think more holistically in their quest for the integration of DT for civil engineering applications.

Organisational innovation and gender diversity: Insights from the civil engineering industry

Orientation: The civil engineering industry is vital in ensuring that infrastructure development has a beneficial social, economic, and environmental impact.Research purpose: This study explored the role of gender diversity and organisational innovation with a view to address social ills in the civil engineering industry in South Africa.Motivation for the study: The study is premised on the paucity in extant research and responds to calls for more research on the role of gender diversity and organisational innovation with a view to address social ills in the civil engineering industry.Research design, approach and method: Employing the interpretivist paradigm, 15 civil engineering professionals were purposively selected based on their extensive experience and comprehensive deep knowledge of the industry and interviewed using the semi-structured approach of interviews using the Microsoft Teams (MS Teams) platform. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the interview transcripts.Main findings: From thematic analysis, the following themes emerged from the primary data: skewed gender representation, females’ retention challenges, creation of an inclusive environment, building a strategic female structure, inclusive innovation, and role models and mentors’ deficit.Practical and/or managerial implications: The civil engineering industry needs to empower women occupying positions of power and not just fill the numbers through the removal of the male gatekeeping effect as the current status shows male dominance. It is also critical to create an inclusive environment, grow the pool of females to build the numbers critical for gender diversity, particularly at the top, and promote mentorship opportunities.Contributions and/or value add: This article advances knowledge on the role of gender diversity and organisational innovation with a view to address social ills in the civil engineering industry and exposes the shared patriarchal values that many organisations appear to promote. It further highlights that society still struggles with infrastructure that does not address its needs and points the civil engineering industry towards the current skill sets and experiences of its female workforce, and how to leverage those capabilities to benefit the industry and the entire society.

Assessment of Properties of Green SCC with and without Novel Additive

Concrete is the most widely used construction material in civil engineering industry because of its proved structural strength and stability when made properly. The concrete industry is constantly trying to evolve to make concrete more sustainable replacing a part of full cement with additives and Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs). Each tonne of cement production releases one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere and hence to greenhouse effect and global warming. A cost effective, alternative and innovative materials called novel additive is taken up for present study to reduce the cement consumption per m3 of concrete/SCC without reduction in strength of required grade. In this project an effort is made replacing cement content of SCC partially with Fly Ash, Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) in combination of novel additive. The study focused at studying the properties of fresh SCC and hardened SCC. The design mix proportion of 1: 2.63: 1.86 with a W/B ratio of 0.36 is taken up and 4 different mixes with different combinations of varied percentage replacement materials with 2% by weight of cement of novel additive. The properties of green SCC showed that fresh properties get enhanced through usage of mineral admixtures including a novel additive and hence, the addition of mineral admixture improve the flowability or rheology of SCC mixes. The strength of SCC achieved is ranging from 32- 46 N/mm2 for a cementitious content of 400 kg/m3 , highest being with lowest cement content with novel additive. Keywords: Rheology of SCC, Mineral Admixtures, Novel Additive, Sustainability

Microstructure-sensitivity of CPFEM models on fretting fatigue crack initiation of AA2024-T351 alloy

The AA2024-T351 alloy is widely used in civil engineering, machinery, and aerospace industries for bolts, rivets, and thin plate components. When in service within these fields, the components are susceptible to performance degradation and fracture failure due to fretting fatigue. In this study, a crystal plastic finite element method (CPFEM) model incorporating microstructure sensitivity is employed to predict the fretting fatigue crack initiation (FFCI) location and lifetime. The submodel method is utilized to simulate various microstructures in the contact region of the specimen under fretting fatigue. This research focuses on two fatigue indicator parameters (FIPs): accumulated plastic slip p and FIPFS, used to determine the hotspots for crack nucleation on the contact surface and subsurface in fretting fatigue. The study explores the impact of different grain size and orientation on crack nucleation and analyzes how various microstructural characteristics influence the crack initiation lifetime. The findings indicate that the influence of grain orientation distribution in fretting fatigue on the initiation location of contact surface cracks is not significant, but it has a notable impact on subsurface cracks. Different grain textures combinations exhibit a more pronounced anisotropy based on the accumulated plastic slip p than FIPFS. Additionally, the effect of grain orientation distribution on the FFCI lifetime is influenced by the average grain size, showing remarkable influence within a specific range of grain sizes.

Soft computing models for prediction of bentonite plastic concrete strength

Bentonite plastic concrete (BPC) is extensively used in the construction of water-tight structures like cut-off walls in dams, etc., because it offers high plasticity, improved workability, and homogeneity. Also, bentonite is added to concrete mixes for the adsorption of toxic metals. The modified design of BPC, as compared to normal concrete, requires a reliable tool to predict its strength. Thus, this study presents a novel attempt at the application of two innovative evolutionary techniques known as multi-expression programming (MEP) and gene expression programming (GEP) and a boosting-based algorithm known as AdaBoost to predict the 28-day compressive strength ( ) of BPC based on its mixture composition. The MEP and GEP algorithms expressed their outputs in the form of an empirical equation, while AdaBoost failed to do so. The algorithms were trained using a dataset of 246 points gathered from published literature having six important input factors for predicting. The developed models were subject to error evaluation, and the results revealed that all algorithms satisfied the suggested criteria and had a correlation coefficient (R) greater than 0.9 for both the training and testing phases. However, AdaBoost surpassed both MEP and GEP in terms of accuracy and demonstrated a lower testing RMSE of 1.66 compared to 2.02 for MEP and 2.38 for GEP. Similarly, the objective function value for AdaBoost was 0.10 compared to 0.176 for GEP and 0.16 for MEP, which indicated the overall good performance of AdaBoost compared to the two evolutionary techniques. Also, Shapley additive analysis was done on the AdaBoost model to gain further insights into the prediction process, which revealed that cement, coarse aggregate, and fine aggregate are the most important factors in predicting the strength of BPC. Moreover, an interactive graphical user interface (GUI) has been developed to be practically utilized in the civil engineering industry for prediction of BPC strength.

Active control vibrations of aircraft wings under dynamic loading: Introducing PSO-GWO algorithm to predict dynamical information

This study presents an innovative approach to mitigate vibrations induced by external shock on composite structures through the application of an intelligent controller. Leveraging the first-order shear deformation panel theory, a sophisticated controller scheme is developed, integrating methodologies such as the differential quadrature approach and Laplace transform. Furthermore, deep neural network (DNN) and support vector regression (SVR) techniques are employed to enhance prediction accuracy and control efficiency. Additionally, two optimized hybrid models are proposed, incorporating Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO) algorithms, to further refine the controller's performance. The proposed methodology aims to address the challenges associated with vibrations in composite structures by providing a comprehensive and adaptive control solution. By utilizing advanced optimization algorithms and machine learning techniques, the controller can effectively adapt to dynamic changes in external shock conditions, thereby minimizing vibrations and ensuring structural integrity. The integration of ANN and SVR enhances the controller's predictive capabilities, enabling it to anticipate and respond to varying shock scenarios with precision. Through theoretical analysis and numerical simulations, the effectiveness of the proposed intelligent controller is demonstrated in reducing vibrations and enhancing the structural stability of composite systems. The optimized hybrid models, employing PSO and GWO algorithms, further improve the controller's performance by fine-tuning its parameters for optimal control efficiency. Overall, this research contributes to the development of robust control strategies for mitigating vibrations in composite structures subjected to external shock, with potential applications in aerospace, automotive, and civil engineering industries.

Analysis of Models to Predict Mechanical Properties of High-Performance and Ultra-High-Performance Concrete Using Machine Learning

High-Performance Concrete (HPC) and Ultra-High-Performance Concrete (UHPC) have many applications in civil engineering industries. These two types of concrete have as many similarities as they have differences with each other, such as the mix design and additive powders like silica fume, metakaolin, and various fibers, however, the optimal percentages of the mixture design properties of each element of these concretes are completely different. This study investigated the differences and similarities between these two types of concrete to find better mechanical behavior through mixture design and parameters of each concrete. In addition, this paper studied the correlation matrix through the machine learning method to predict the mechanical properties and find the relationship between the concrete mix design elements and the mechanical properties. In this way, Linear, Ridge, Lasso, Random Forest, K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN), Decision tree, and Partial least squares (PLS) regressions have been chosen to find the best regression types. To find the accuracy, the coefficient of determination (R2), mean absolute error (MAE), and root-mean-square error (RMSE) were selected. Finally, PLS, Linear, and Lasso regressions had better results than other regressions, with R2 greater than 93%, 92%, and 92%, respectively. In general, the present study shows that HPC and UHPC have different mix designs and mechanical properties. In addition, PLS, Linear, and Lasso regressions are the best regressions for predicting mechanical properties.

Empathic Ability as a Driver for Project Management

Empathy is receiving increasing attention as it can contribute to the collaboration and connectedness required for today's global challenges. A similar trend reveals itself at the scale of project management, given the change from technological to integration-driven challenges in projects. The necessary integrated approach affects the key competencies sought in project team participants. Since empathy enhances one's feeling for and understanding of the project participants’ interests, it could support the integration assignment. Therefore, focusing on the Dutch civil engineering industry, this study investigated whether the project team's empathic ability drives project performance. The results suggest a positive correlation between the team's empathic abilities and performance. Additionally, the study provides insights into the industry's current level of empathic ability, prompting the conclusion that there is room to improve performance by increasing the project teams’ empathic abilities.

Assessment of the carbon neutral capacity of ecological slopes: A case study of wet-spraying vegetation concrete ecological river revetment

ABSTRACT This study evaluates the carbon neutrality of eco-slope protection projects to understand their role in climate change mitigation. Utilizing life cycle assessment, it defines system boundaries and compiles inventories to calculate and analyze carbon emissions and assimilations of a wet-spraying vegetation concrete eco-slope protection project in China, simplifying previous methodologies and emphasizing the critical role of vegetation. Findings indicate lifecycle carbon emissions total 608.01 tCO2e, broken down by source as follows: material (54.69%), maintenance (40.11%), energy (3.27%), transport (1.32%), and workforce (0.6%). Slope protection plants are estimated to assimilate 2,676.30 tCO2. The project is estimated to reach carbon neutrality in its 4.59th year, with an anticipated net carbon sink contribution of 2,068.29 tons over its lifespan. These results underscore eco-slope protection projects’ significant carbon neutral capacity, highlighting their importance in combating climate change and fostering the civil engineering industry's green transformation.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE CHLORIDE-ION PERMEABILITY OF BAMBOO-FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETE

This study investigated the chloride-ion permeability of C30 concrete by adding bamboo fibers with different treatments (untreated, treated with calcium hydroxide solution and treated with sodium hydroxide solution) and different dosages. Three testing methods, namely the electric-flux method, AC test method and the RCM method, were used to characterize the concrete. Parameters such as electric-flux value, AC resistivity and chloride-ion diffusion coefficient were obtained. Results showed that the surface impurities of the bamboo fibers treated with calcium hydroxide solution were removed and the thermal stability of the bamboo fibers was improved, which can effectively enhance the chloride-ion permeability of concrete. Compared to untreated bamboo fibers, the improvement rate was between 14 % and 17 %. Sodium hydroxide is a strong alkaline solution, which can easily disrupt the structure of bamboo fibers and reduce the resistance of concrete to chloride-ion penetration. The best chloride-ion permeability was achieved when the bamboo fiber content reached 2 %. The electric-flux method, AC test method, and the RCM method were mutually validated with good correlation. It is recommended to choose a suitable and simple method for testing. Bamboo-fiber concrete lays a solid foundation for the future transformation of the civil-engineering industry.

Contact mechanics of open-cell foams with macroscopic asperities

Poroelastic materials mounted against rigid surfaces often result in partial contact between the two, affecting their mechanical interaction. The surface roughness of cellular materials introduces complexity in predicting their behavior due to the interface with partial contact. This interface exhibits a stiffness distinct from the bulk material, which is driven by the surface asperities and the preload. This study conducts compression experiments on an open-cell poroelastic melamine foam, and compares them to finite elements simulations and analytic predictions. The material’s intrinsic stress–strain nonlinearity is accounted for, and an original hyperelastic aging model is proposed to achieve accurate predictions of its compression stiffness across multiple time scales. Predicting the compression stiffness of a macroscopic pyramidal asperity demonstrates a good agreement with the simple analytic solution for an elastic pyramidal geometry. Using a Greenwood–Williamson-like model based on the distribution of asperities of different heights, we propose a method to predict the contact stiffness of a rough surface. Our findings have important implications for understanding and optimizing efficient vibration barriers, resulting from the simple stacking of layers and screens of raw poroelastic materials, a configuration widely adopted in the transportation and civil engineering industries.

A contribution to preservation of salt-laden construction materials: An effective, eco-friendly and inexpensive system of renovation plasters

Prolongation of construction service-life is a crucial way of reducing maintenance costs and carbon footprint related to civil engineering industry. Salinity and dampness are recognized as the main factors affecting porous materials stability. Hence, it is essential to provide effective and easily accessible measures against them. The main goal of the presented manuscript is to satisfy this need by proposing a complex system of renovation plasters, which combines cost effectiveness with high quality. Five renders’ compositions, i.e., one base and four top plasters are designed and extensively studied. Apart from tests required by Association of Science and Technology of Building Maintenance and Monuments Preservation (ger. Wissenschaftlich-Technische Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Bauwerkserhaltung und Denkmalpflege, WTA), the experimental analysis also includes testing of resistance to corrosion factors, such as UV-aging, or cyclic frost action among others. The presented results confirm that the designed materials meet WTA requirements, but also maintain their properties for a long period of time. Since the proposed plasters consist solely of widely available and cheap components, the final price of a ready-to-use render is reduced by 90 % comparing to commercial mortars available in the market. Additionally, the life cycle analysis (LCA) proves that the proposed materials are eco-friendly solutions in comparison to conventional plasters.

Compression stress-strain curve of lithium slag recycled fine aggregate concrete.

As one of the key materials used in the civil engineering industry, concrete has a global annual consumption of approximately 10 billion tons. Cement and fine aggregate are the main raw materials of concrete, and their production causes certain harm to the environment. As one of the countries with the largest production of industrial solid waste, China needs to handle solid waste properly. Researchers have proposed to use them as raw materials for concrete. In this paper, the effects of different lithium slag (LS) contents (0%, 10%, 20%, 40%) and different substitution rates of recycled fine aggregates (RFA) (0%, 10%, 20%, 30%) on the axial compressive strength and stress-strain curve of concrete are discussed. The results show that the axial compressive strength, elastic modulus, and peak strain of concrete can increase first and then decrease when LS is added, and the optimal is reached when the LS content is 20%. With the increase of the substitution rate of RFA, the axial compressive strength and elastic modulus of concrete decrease, but the peak strain increases. The appropriate amount of LS can make up for the mechanical defects caused by the addition of RFA to concrete. Based on the test data, the stress-strain curve relationship of lithium slag recycled fine aggregate concrete is proposed, which has a high degree of agreement compared with the test results, which can provide a reference for practical engineering applications. In this study, LS and RFA are innovatively applied to concrete, which provides a new way for the harmless utilization of solid waste and is of great significance for the control of environmental pollution and resource reuse.

MIVES Technique for Sustainability Assessment in Architecture and Civil Engineering Industries

A subfield of computer science called artificial intelligence studies, develops, and uses intelligent computers. Massive computational resources are needed for complicated structure system modeling and optimization using traditional approaches; nevertheless, Artificial intelligence-driven solutions can often provide practical substitutes for efficiently addressing challenges in civil engineering. This paper presents a study that examines the merits and requirements of multidisciplinary collaboration between architecture and civil engineering students, focusing on the distinctions and overlaps in their aesthetic assessments and visual preferences. To illustrate the difficulties facing the Spanish Combined Value Model for Sustainability Assessment (MIVES), this research study synthesizes the different approaches for sustainability assessment for the construction industry and compares their advantages and disadvantages. The value function concept and expert seminars serve as the foundation for the Multi-Criteria Decision Making technique known as MIVES. Research indicates that the primary areas of interest for artificial intelligence studies in civil engineering are design optimization and structural maintenance and management. Finally, the primary research trends are also highlighted. An overview of artificial intelligence's advancements in civil engineering is given in this paper.

Characteristics of Carbon and Kevlar Fibres, Their Composites and Structural Applications in Civil Engineering-A Review.

Kevlar and carbon fibres and fabrics have won a leading place in the structure market, although such materials are not cheap, and are increasingly used for reinforcing and strengthening structural elements in the civil engineering, automotive, aerospace and military industries, due to their superior mechanical properties, especially in terms of strength. The mechanical characteristics of such composite materials must be known in order to numerically simulate the mechanical behaviour of such structures in terms of the distribution of stresses and strains. It has also become a necessity to understand the effects of reinforcement with both types of fibres (carbon fibres and Kevlar fibres) on the mechanical properties, especially on the impact properties of such composites. This review aims to expose the main advantages and disadvantages of the hybridization of carbon and Kevlar fibres. For this reason, an overview is presented concerning the main characteristics (tensile strength, flexural strength, impact strength, coefficient of thermal expansion and so on) for carbon and Kevlar fibres and also for hybrid Kevlar-carbon composite materials to aid in the design of such hybrid composite materials. Finally, some civil construction rehabilitation and consolidation applications of the composites reinforced with carbon fibre, Kevlar fibre or with hybrid Kevlar-carbon fabrics are highlighted in the last part of the paper.

Development of Ultra-High Performance Geopolymer Concrete Containing Recycled Fine Aggregate Replacement

The construction industry continually strives to enhance sustainability and reduce environmental impact. Developing innovative concrete materials that utilize recycled aggregates and alternative cementitious binders has gained significant attention in this context. This abstract presents a study on developing ultra-high-performance geopolymer concrete (UHPGC) by replacing fine aggregates with recycled materials. This research aims to develop UHPGC by incorporating recycled fine aggregate waste (RFAW) as a partial replacement for fine aggregate. Four different concrete mixes were prepared and tested to evaluate RFAW's influence on the performance of UHPGC, considering replacements of up to 30% of fine aggregate. The study examined the fresh properties and mechanical characteristics of the resulting material. The experimental outcomes demonstrated that adding RFAW enhanced the workability of fresh concrete, making it more easily manageable. However, the mechanical properties of the hardened concrete were slightly affected to some extent. Specifically, the compressive strength decreased from 119 MPa to 103 MPa when 30% RAW was added. Conversely, with lower replacement percentages of 10% and 20%, the concrete exhibited no reduction in strength compared to the 30% replacement levels. This reduction in strength could be attributed to a weaker bond between the geopolymer gel and the recycled fine aggregate particles. Additionally, it was observed that as the proportion of RFAW increased, the water absorption of the UHPGC also increased. This indicates that the concrete had a higher tendency to absorb moisture. Nevertheless, the findings suggest that RFAW waste could be a viable resource for producing environmentally friendly UHPGC with improved physical, mechanical, and durability properties with appropriate optimization. The outcomes of this study can promote sustainable construction practices by reducing the reliance on virgin materials and promoting the circular economy within the civil engineering industry.

Flexural Characterization of Concrete Beams Reinforced with 3D-Printed Formworks

3D printing has been on the rise in recent times and the civil engineering industry has adopted this technology due to its various advantages. However, printing is largely restricted to concrete members while the reinforcement is introduced manually. The current work looks at the possibility of using 3D printed thermoplastics as formwork and reinforcement for concrete beams. Three different polymeric materials, namely PETG, PLA, and TPU were utilized in this research to fabricate formwork-like reinforcement for 150×150×500 mm concrete beams. The reinforcements were 3D-printed using a fused deposition modelling (FDM) printer in the shape of a formwork to serve as moulds and external reinforcement. The reinforcing formwork geometry was designed with trapezoidal corrugations to ensure strong bonding with the concrete. The beams were tested in four-point bending configuration, and their flexural behaviour was characterized and compared with plain and steel reinforced concrete (RC) reference beams. Results indicate that all 3D printed beams reached a load capacity of around 30 kN. The post-peak behaviour of these beams was dependent on the type of polymer used. The PLA and TPU reinforced beams exhibit large post-peak deflection however their load carrying capacity was compromised, while the PETG exhibited a strain hardening behaviour but with much lower deflections. Overall, the results indicate that 3D-printed thermoplastics are a promising economical alternative to the conventional steel reinforcement.