Civic Virtue Research Articles

Политические истоки универсальных добродетелей в Средней Стое

The article is devoted to the study of the civil and political origins of the virtues in the concepts of the Middle Stoa and the reasons that led to their gradual transformation into the universal personal virtues of the "stoic sage" in the Late Stoa. The formation of politically oriented virtues was formulated and spread largely under the influence of the activities of the Scipionic Circle. The study found that the departure from political orientation was accompanied by a gradual rejection of the idea of the elitism of the "virtuous man", whose moral image was largely sanctified by the "heroic ideals" of belonging to the "divine" Rome. Historical changes have led to the fact that public life is gradually ceasing to be a "common cause" both in political terms and as a proper moral ideal. The ideas of civic virtues are losing their relevance. This contributed to a shift in emphasis on issues of personal morality, when moral self-education, both in the sense of teaching and forming oneself as a virtuous person, takes on a universal character, since it becomes the lot and personal concern of everyone. This finds expression in the ideas of the Late Stoa, whose ethical ideals are becoming increasingly popular in modern society.

Два подхода к социальной политике в немецкой консервативной политической философии конца XX века

Introduction. In conservative political philoso- phy in Germany at the end of the 20th century, there developed two main approaches to social policy. The first one, paternalistic and corporat- ist approach continued the line that had been established in the 19th century and assumed the active participation of the state in regulating social support. The second, the market one, adopted American ideas of the second half of the 20th cen- tury and proposed limiting the scope of the welfare state in order to save resources and avoid a nega- tive impact on the labor market. The purpose of the study is to analyze the argu- ments of the two directions of German conserva- tism at the end of the 20th century, their philo- sophical origin and their significance for politics. Methods. The article is based on the comparative historical approach, analysis of institutions and legal documents, and the hermeneutic method for studying the political, administrative and ideological context of the development of German conserva- tism at the end of the 20th century. Scientific novelty of the research. The article focuses on the intellectual heritage of German theorists, while the main attention of domestic and foreign researchers of conservative political philosophy of the late 20th century was attracted by American and British authors. Results. The key arguments of the paternalistic approach to social issues include pointing out the responsibility of elites for the well-being of the population and a strong state as a means of com- pensating for inequality in society. The arguments of the market approach are based on the appeal to the ideas of civic virtue and the protection of property as key forces that ensure social peace and well-being. Conclusions. In practice, the approach that offered the preservation and expansion of the welfare state prevailed, and favorable economic condi- tions, as well as institutional and ideological inertia, contributed to implementing solutions within the framework of this paradigm. But the ideas of the market approach have not lost their relevance, since the burden on the welfare state increases due to the aging of the population.

Impact of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour on Organizational Commitment: Evidence from University Faculty

The present research has been carried out to determine the OCB impact on OC (Organizational Commitment) among university teachers (faculty members). Positivism research philosophy and descriptive and causal comparative research design were employed in the study. Multistage sampling was employed in the study including 164 faculty members in Pokhara, Nepal as a sample size. Primary sources of data were used through questionnaires and statistical tools were employed as per the necessity to fulfil the research gap. The study revealed that sportsmanship behaviour denoted as OCBSPO was the least among university teachers in Pokhara. On the other hand, courtesy behaviour as denoted by OCB was perceived as the highest contributing factor of OCB. The study revealed a higher level of normative commitment (OCNOR) among the faculty members. The present study demonstrates that significant impact has been observed in civic virtue (OCBCIV) and courtesy (OCBCOU) and Civic Virtue (OCBCIV) dimensions on organizational commitment (OC). The research has policy implications as the findings of this research can be used by university authorities to further develop human resource policies. The future researcher needs to conduct research on the same area employing a larger sample, including different constructs and also to examine the impact of COVID-19 on organizational commitment.

Working-Class Germans in the Salt City: Syracuse, New York, 1860–1916

Working-Class Germans in the Salt CitySyracuse, New York, 1860–1916 Daniel Koch (bio) The central city of the Empire State was once the home of thousands of Germans, the largest contingent in a multicultural, multilingual urban melting pot. Syracuse was one of the key industrial cities of the United States during the Civil War era and into the twentieth century. Like other American cities, its industrial might was built on immigrant labor, much of which was German. Yet, there has not been a historical study of German Syracuse since the editors of the German-language Syracuse Union newspaper produced a book called Geschichte der Deutschen in Syracuse und Onondaga County (The history of the Germans in Syracuse and Onondaga County) in 1897. Like the tomes of county history produced around the same time, the Geschichte focuses on the great and the good. Its subtitle gives its intention away—Nebst Kurzen Biographien von Beamten and Hervorragenden Buergern (With short biographies of officials and prominent citizens). The book is handsomely illustrated with portraits of eminent German Americans who achieved great success in their careers, and who also gave back to their communities by supporting churches, schools, and charities. These leaders were a source of pride at a time when "great man" status was the aim to which young men were taught to aspire. But the men (and they are all men) whose portraits adorn the Geschichte were exceptions. Most German immigrants worked in industrial jobs, living in what urban accommodation they could afford. They clustered in immigrant neighborhoods with other Germans but also often in mixed communities with other groups of immigrants—Irish, particularly in the early decades, and Italian and Polish in the later part of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This article seeks to expose a little-studied German community, going beyond the limited great-man focused nineteenth-century sources that exist. Both the Geschichte and Dwight H. Bruce's Memorial History of Syracuse (1891), the two most detailed views of the city in the late nineteenth century, portray a highly positive view of a flourishing German [End Page 361] American community that exemplified civic virtue.1 Historians have maintained that Germans were widely accepted, even celebrated, in American society between the Civil War and the outbreak of World War I.2 The purpose here is not to try to undermine this view; indeed, the records from Syracuse in this period clearly bear it out. Nor is it to write a labor history of Germans in Syracuse. It is rather to bring back to life some of what was left out or swept under the carpet in building this narrative of German success in America. This article seeks to answer why these omissions occurred and argues that it was at least partially related to pervasive racialist discourse in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Furthermore, studying Syracuse's German community enables us to reconstruct the urban geography of a nineteenth-century industrial center and take a new look at a lost German neighborhood in a key American city. Syracuse was a relatively late city to emerge in New York State. The land upon which it is built was part of the Onondaga Reservation, a 64,000-acre tract that was exempt from white settlement by the terms of the 1788 treaty between the State of New York and the Onondaga Nation.3 Syracuse is still known as the salt city due to the briny waters that flow into Onondaga Lake, from which salt can be made using a boiling process. Water from Syracuse's salt springs, an 1834 map boasted, produced nearly seven times as much salt as the same quantity of sea water. "Solar salt" was also produced by allowing the water to evaporate in the sun and raking in the remaining salt. Subsequent exploitative treaties with the state chipped away at the Onondaga Reservation (other Haudenosaunee people in New York experienced the same in the so-called treaty period between the 1790s and 1820s). The land upon which Syracuse was built was transferred first to the state and then sold off to private buyers. Settlers poured in, mainly from New England, in the early decades...

Digital idiocy in higher education: Mapping the challenge


 This paper proposes a set of conceptual underpinnings for understanding the conditions for civic participation. While the empirical research is not undertaken in this paper, an understanding of the conditions for, and partially, nature of, civic participation is required for finding out whether digitizing higher education is detrimental to civic virtues such as participation and courage. Based on examples of on-campus political action, the paper explicates three aspects of civic virtue: Firstly, an architectural aspect that can invite, bar or allow for political action, through sit-ins, barricades and the like. Secondly, a virtue-forming aspect, where forms of collective action can help foster virtues by encouraging or sanctioning certain kinds of action. Thirdly, an informational aspect, where the structure of brick-and-mortar campuses strengthens politically significant informational structures, allowing for both common knowledge and public signals (open spaces) and “closed curtains” enclave deliberations. In contrast with a range of recent attempts at resisting a decline narrative that point to changes in the nature of civic virtue with digitization, the paper concludes by using the three aspects to point to possibilities of identifying the same aspects of civic virtue online as can be found in a physical, campus setting. 

How do primary school teachers practice organisational citizenship behaviour in Amhara regional state, Ethiopia? The case of Bahir Dar city

ABSTRACT Teachers’ organisational citizenship behavior has a significant impact on students learning outcome in particular, as well as the overall effectiveness of the school. The main purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to critically explore the practices and demurrals of primary school teachers’ organisational citizenship behaviors in Bahir Dar city administration, Amhara Region, Ethiopia. Teachers working in primary schools were selected purposively to carry out the study. A semi-structured interview was used to gather data. The data was analyzed narratively. Findings revealed that the practice of organisational citizenship behaviors like civic virtue was found to be better. But practices of OCB dimensions such as sportsmanship, conscientiousness, and courtesy were found to be weak. Altruism was found to be moderate. Lack of belongingness, aspirations, limited knowledge, experience, skill, and meager resources were major challenges constraining teachers from practicing OCBs in primary schools. Facilitating the practice of helping new teachers; creating a culture that promotes voluntarism, high engagement, and cooperative and supportive work; and arranging training and experience sharing are major suggestions.

Stranger in a strange land: The role of study abroad in civic virtues

ABSTRACT What leads people to contribute to public life, to strengthen social cohesion, and work to better society? We investigated how co-curricular aspects of college life relate to social cognitive processes foundational for civic virtues and contribute to their development. We examined one widespread type of co-curricular college experience—studying abroad. When studying abroad, students encounter different social norms and cultures and often interact with others using a non-native language. How does immersion in an unfamiliar society affect psychological capacities, such as epistemic humility and regard for others, that may be central to civic virtues? We compared measures of civic virtues across students who studied abroad, students interested in studying abroad who had not yet had that experience, and students with no interest in studying abroad to understand how differences in civic engagement and civility relate to aspects of students’ psychology such as epistemic humility, empathy, and need for cognition.

Serving and Sustaining Diasporic Connectivities: Hindu Sindhi Women’s Seva in Hong Kong

Abstract This article highlights the role of Hindu Sindhi women in building and sustaining transnational diasporic connectivities through the discourse and practice of “seva” (loosely translated as “selfless service”). Scholars note how the heterodox and syncretic character of Hindu Sindhi religious and cultural identity stretches the contours of textualized Hinduism. However, an analysis of women’s seva demonstrates how Sindhis also deploy an explicitly Hindu identity to negotiate and perform belonging in the diaspora locale of Hong Kong. Through ethnographic fieldwork in Hong Kong, this article explores how women perform acts of seva (e.g., cooking, serving, and maintaining religious spaces) to sustain diaspora ties. Seva positions the community as performing “local civic virtue” and frames Sindhis’ perceived “ethnic difference” in Hong Kong by presenting a legible Hindu identity. Women are pivotal in sacralizing food offerings and facilitating the religio-spiritual meanings of seva in Hong Kong. During the pandemic, the religious connectivities and spaces of seva women maintained, created, shaped, and expanded global Sindhi diaspora ties. For these women, participating in seva becomes a means of personal spiritual growth, fostering social connections, and negotiating/performing gendered roles and expectations.

The ethics of talent development: frameworks and identities

PurposeThis paper aims to examine the ethics of authentic talent development in socioeconomic context by considering a set of alternative ethical frameworks. It juxtaposes the ideals of civic virtue, which involve a concern for the common good, with the reality that socioeconomic deprivation and sociocultural practices severely constrain talent development opportunities and choice.Design/methodology/approachThe paper draws on several frameworks complementary to the ideals of civic virtue – the basic goods approach, human capital theory, the capabilities approach and the ethic of care – to elucidate the barriers to talent development embodied in sociocultural context, as well as policy and institutional practices to overcoming these barriers.FindingsWhile multiple ethical frameworks are necessary to fully capture the issues related to authentic talent development in socioeconomic context, a focus on the ethic of care and basic goods provision is an important starting point. There are also a few fundamental starting points for human resource development in responding to ethical concerns regarding authentic talent development.Originality/valueWhile the prevailing approach to talent development is implicitly based on a logic of social identity ascription, this paper promotes an alternative approach based on the ethics of civic virtue. While the former is oriented to the support of social hierarchies based on identity, the latter is oriented to fostering both social and human well-being via choice and authentic talent development.

Research on The Improvement Path of College Counselors' Core Literacy in The New Era

The core literacy of counselors is to do a good job with students, and it is a necessary character and key ability to promote the career development of counselors. Improving the core literacy of counselors is of great significance. It is the fundamental requirement for foster character and civic virtue, and it is also the need to promote the professional development of counselors. It is also an important measure to strengthen and improve the ideological and political work of college students. To improve the core literacy of college counselors, we should start from improving the counselors' awareness of self-development, building a three-dimensional training system, optimizing the assessment and evaluation mechanism for counselors, and improving the incentive mechanism for counselors, so as to better implement the fundamental task of foster character and civic virtue.

Implementation of Organizational Citizenship Behavior Factory Family Members Joger's Words Factory

The main factors of the success of an organization that HR provides are extra behavior and effectiveness in work. Extra behavior from human resources is needed by organizations to be able to help encourage the progress of an organization and this extra behavior is called Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB). This study aims to analyse the implementation of organizational citizenship behavior of family members of the Joger Words Factory. The literature used in this study consists of two theories, namely social exchange theory and Organizational Citizenship Behavior. The research focus plays an important role for researchers to make it easier to conduct research, with the aim of limiting studies in research conducted, especially on research objects so that the discussion does not expand and focus on research topics. There are three data collection techniques carried out in data collection in this study, namely: documentation interviews and observations. The selection of informants is carried out using the snowball sampling method. Testing the validity of the data in this study uses the triangulation method, which is a data examination method that utilizes something else in comparing the results of the interview with the object of the study. The triangulation used in this study includes source triangulation. The data analysis technique used in this study is interactive analysis. This model has 4 components of analysis, namely: data collection, data reduction, data presentation, and drawing conclusions. Implementation of Organizational Citizenship Behavior of Family Members Factory Joger’s words is seen from five indicators including Altruism, Conscientiousness, Courtesys, Sportsmanship and Civic Virtue.

Building Organizational Citizenship Behavior Through College Alumni Relationship Management

This study aims to (1) determine what factors influence alumni to carry out Organizational Citizenship Behavior in organizations they have participated in. (2) To find out how alumni relationship management at universities can stay competitive. This study uses a specific qualitative approach and uses a qualitative descriptive method. This research was conducted in the area of ​​one of the universities in Surabaya, because the university is a campus known as a warehouse campus for activists. Data collection techniques using in-depth interviews (in-depth interviews) and observation. The subjects in this study were 4 people, 3 student alumni who had joined the organization and still contributed to the organization and the academic community at the University and 1 university leader. The results of the study said that the factor that influenced alumni who did OCB, namely Altruism IU intended to help students become confident and fluent in public speaking. Conscientiousness providing training never asks for anything in return, even though the subject is one of the national level trainers, because the subject wants to make the generations below him better. Sportsmanship Subject has a very tight schedule, once a week the subject goes out of the island to provide training, but still prioritizes students and for the sake of maintaining the name of the alumni association at the college. Courtesy at that time IU also served as chairman of the BEM and old seniors also often helped IU during her time. Civic Virtue hopes that the subject will always invite and provide training to the younger brothers of their own organization so that the next generation will follow in the footsteps of the subject. Proving the quality of yourself as an alumni of college graduates in Surabaya, so that there is bargaining value for outsiders who see the alumni of the college and there is bargaining value for outsiders who see it, the campus itself will also look for and see individuals if they have high capability.

Military Culture and Institutional Trust: Evidence from Conscription Reforms in Europe

AbstractDoes military conscription reduce the distance between the ordinary citizen and the state? Decades after its abolition, numerous European policy makers from across the political spectrum advocate the reintroduction of conscription to foster civic virtues, despite a lack of empirical evidence in this respect. Leveraging quasi‐random variation in conscription reforms across 15 European countries, we find that cohorts of men drafted just before its abolition display significantly and substantially lower institutional trust than cohorts of men who were just exempted. At the same time, ending conscription had no effect on institutional trust among women from comparable cohorts. Results are neither driven by more favorable attitudes toward the government, nor by educational choices. Instead, this civil–military gap unfolds through the formation of a homogeneous community with uniform values. We argue that reintroducing a compulsory military service may not produce the effects anticipated by its advocates.

A Newly tested Transformational Leadership - Organizational Citizenship Behavior model: Among the Employees of the Jordanian Universities: An Empirical Study

The optimizations of a university’s achievement require an effective leadership style to create an organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), as the excellence of such universities relies on mutual and collaborative efforts among their leaders, faculty members, employees, and students. The main objective of this study is to address and identify the impact of the transformational leadership style (TLS) on (OCB) in the universities in Jordan. The author has focused on five key aspects of (TLS) which are idealized behaviors, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individual consideration, and idealized influence, and five key aspects of (OCB), which are Conscientiousness, Sportsmanship, Civic virtue, Courtesy, and Altruism. This was achieved by validating the predesigned constructs of (Bass and Avolio, 2004) and (Podsakoff, et al., 1990) for the Jordanian university context by using structural equation modeling (SEM), both CFA and path analysis. Indeed, this required testing for the unidimensionality, reliability, and validity of the data which was randomly collected from 392 participants from the universities of Jordan, alongside testing the 5-5 model fit of (OCB) and (TLS) constructs in the Jordanian universities context and finally the path analysis to uncover the impact of (TLS) on (OCB). The results revealed that the pre-designed model was modified to include 18 items for the five components of (TLS) rather than the original 20 items, and 17 items for the five components of (OCB) rather than the original 24 items. Moreover, the five latent components of (TLS) loaded successfully into (TLS) general construct, whereas the five latent components of (OCB) loaded successfully into (OCB) general construct as well, where the respecified model was accepted based on the overall assessment of the model fit indices. Finally, (TLS) appeared to have a significant effect on (OCB), where (OCB) = 0.411*(TLS)+ 3.480+e, which means that (TLS) is a good predictor of (OCB), i.e., when TLS goes up by one unit, (OBC) goes up by 0.411 unit. Consequently, the author suggests practical implications for organizations and business practitioners, where, first, organizations should encourage their employees to recognize (TLS) and second, leaders should recognize their potential effect on employees’ behavior and attitude, especially in the individual consideration to be fully engaged in their citizenship behavior for the good of their organizational success.

“So Natural Is the Union of Religion with Justice”: Hooker’s Defense of Religious Establishment

One of the greatest contributions of Anglican theology has been its consistent defense of the value of public religious establishment, and the classic defense remains that of Richard Hooker in his Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity (1593–1600). In the opening chapters of Book V of the Laws, Hooker offers a compelling argument that religion is a crucial support to a well-ordered and virtuous polity while seeking to forestall the objection that this “instrumentalizes” religion to merely political ends. He also acknowledges the generic value of any kind of public reli- gion while nonetheless contending that the wise ruler must choose that religion that is true, namely, Christianity. Hooker’s defense of religious establishment remains relevant in a Western world coming to terms with the contradictions of secular pluralism. KEYWORDS: Anglicanism, religious establishment, public religion, Richard Hooker, civic virtue, justice

Нарратив об Отцах-основателях в национальной памяти США

The article is devoted to the narrative-constructivist analysis of the historical memory of the Founding Fathers in the USA. To achieve this goal, specific research tasks were performed in the article. First, the nation was conceptualized as a ‘narrative community’ constructed by certain narratives about the people, their culture, past, present and future. Secondly, the differences between historical knowledge (knowledge obtained using the methods of historical research) and historical memory (a collective representation of the past that reflects the value-normative conventions in society) were identified. Thirdly, the place, content, and functions of the historical narrative of the Founding Fathers in the US national memory were determined. Specifically, this narrative reflects the universal, archetypal mythologem of the “golden generation”, which is present in a variety of national cultures. It performs the functions of legitimizing and relativizing the social order (by creating a connection with the glorified past and, at the same time, breaking with it), as well as the function of regulating the behavior of individuals (by creating a model of civic virtue). Fourth, a connection was found between the national style of social narration and the Protestant tradition, which is the basis of the US civil religion. The author defends the idea that this connection predetermined the “religious style” of the national narration in the United States. Fifthly, the national narrative of the Founding Fathers was considered in the context of historical revisionism, which today is called upon to restore historical justice through demythologization of the national past. The premises of this historical revisionism were also identified: the academic institutionalization of new disciplines in the 1960s (e.g. women’s history, black history, etc.). This helped determine the current dynamics and ideological orientation of narrative practices in American society.

Leisure as self-care in the times of the pandemic: Insights from a time-use diary study in India

ABSTRACT In this research note, we discuss how the pandemic forged a renewed interest in self-care among urban older Indians. A reflexive thematic analysis of time-use diaries (N = 15) allows us to examine leisure patterns and everyday subjectivities of middle-class older Indians. In particular, time-diaries reveal a heightened focus on leisure-based enacted self-care practices including meditation, online activity/learning, and socialising. Consistent with previous scholarship of an unequivocal gender inequality in leisure as self-care, we observe distinct differences among men and women in their engagement with self-care. Specifically, while men engaged in outdoor activities as a way to cope with the stress and uncertainties of the pandemic, women’s everyday lives continued to be defined by domesticity and household management. Additionally, we show that while immediately uplifting, the ethics of self-care embodies the neoliberal logic of the entrepreneurial subject that makes self-reliance a necessity to practice responsible citizenship in times of the pandemic. Overall, by shifting the logics of care to the self, we depart from the more commonly held notion of older adults being recipients of care to the crafting of autonomous subjects through the pandemic-led public health practices of committed citizenship and civic virtue.

Does organizational citizenship behavior predict organizational commitment of employees in higher educational institutions?

Many studies have been conducted in organizations on the topics of organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). However, there is a shortage of these topics in higher education institutions in the Asian context. Therefore, this article attempts to fill this literature gap. The study examines the influence of organizational citizenship behavior on organizational commitment in the higher education sector in Vietnam. It analyzes the effect of OCB components on three aspects of organizational commitment: affective commitment, normative commitment, and continuance commitment. A self-administered survey was collected from 301 employees working for 21 higher education institutions in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, and the structural equation was analyzed by using Smart PLS-SEM. The results establish that OCB components such as helping, sportsmanship, loyalty, individual initiative, compliance, civic virtue, and self-development influence organizational commitment. Furthermore, “helping” demonstrated the most substantial effect on organizational commitment. The research also found a difference in organizational commitment between groups of respondents based on age and educational level. However, the research was restricted to Ho Chi Minh City universities and future research could broaden the sample size to vocational colleges as well as other Asian contexts. Theoretical contributions, practical implications, and future research directions are discussed.

Human rights education—a republican perspective

The concept of freedom is at the moral core of human rights and human rights education. In the liberal tradition, the prevalent understanding of freedom is non-interference. In the republican tradition, however, freedom is primarily conceived of as non-domination rather than non-interference. This article discusses whether the republican ideal of freedom is conducive to the ambition of human rights education to strengthen and develop respect for human rights, and to build and promote a culture of human rights. The article argues that a republican perspective, although challenging, is important, because it identifies central aspects of freedom that are vital to the fundamental standing of persons and to living a life in dignity, and because it emphasises active citizenship and civic virtue as important for realising freedom. It further argues that a republican perspective requires a multidisciplinary approach to human rights education.

Analyzing Dimensions, Consequences, and Inequalities of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour in Non-governmental Organizations of Crisis Management (Experimental Evidence: Red Crescent Society of the Islamic Republic of Iran)

INTRODUCTION: This research aimed to provide a dynamic model of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) in crisis management non-governmental organizations with a social approach (experimental evidence: Red Crescent Society of the Islamic Republic of Iran). METHODS: This applied research was conducted using a mixed (quantitative-qualitative) method to analyze the data. The statistical population consisted of university professors as well as the managers and experts of the Iranian Red Crescent Society, who were selected by the snowball sampling method. The total number of experts in the Iranian Red Crescent Society and in the academic community accounted for 10 individuals (n=5 each), and the sampling continued until reaching theoretical saturation. The required information was collected through observation, in-depth and semi-in-depth interviews, review of documents, and experts' opinions; finally, by using the exploratory factor analytical statistical method, appropriate measurement tools were prepared. In this research, the Delphi technique and the Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory-based Analytic Network Process were employed to determine and prioritize criteria and sub-criteria. For this purpose, the pairwise comparison matrix was used to determine the weight of the criteria. FINDINGS: In this study, helping behaviors, individual initiatives, organizational obedience, organizational loyalty, chivalry, civic virtue, and personal development were among the dimensions of OCB in descending order. CONCLUSION: The results of this research showed that the consequences of OCB included an increase in performance productivity and effectiveness, the promotion of positive relations between employees, more efficiency in allocating resources, reduction in maintenance costs, the provision of necessary flexibility for innovation, improvement of customer service, and effective use of scarce resources.