Cities Of Myanmar Research Articles

Characterization and health risk assessment of PM2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Yangon and Mandalay of Myanmar

To better understand the potential adverse health effects of atmospheric fine particles in the Southeast Asian developing countries, PM2.5 samples were collected at two urban sites in Yangon and Mandalay, representing coastal and inland cities in Myanmar, in winter and summer during 2016 and 2017. The concentrations of 21 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in PM2.5 were determined using a gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The concentrations of PAHs in PM2.5 in Yangon and Mandalay ranged from 7.6 to 180 ng m−3, with an average of 72 ng m−3. The PAHs were significantly higher in winter than in summer, and significantly higher in Mandalay than in Yangon. The health risk analysis of PAHs, based on the toxic equivalent quantity (TEQ) calculation, and the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) assessment indicated that PM2.5 in Myanmar has significant health risks with higher health risks in Mandalay compared to Yangon. Diagnostic ratios of PAHs, correlation of PAHs with other species in PM2.5 and the positive matrix factorization (PMF) analysis showed that TEQ is strongly affected by biomass burning and vehicular emissions in Myanmar. Additionally, it was found that the aging degree of aerosols and air mass trajectories had great influences on the concentration and composition of PAHs in PM2.5 in Myanmar, thereby affecting the toxicity of PM2.5.

Probabilistic seismic hazard analysis for Bagan (Myanmar)

Following the 2016 Chauk earthquake in Bagan (Myanmar), numerous old pagodas and temples suffered severe damage. This research presents a study on the seismic hazard analysis of the Bagan city in Myanmar, based on a probabilistic framework focussing on analysing 43 temples with their associated local soil information. To this end, two seismic source models are developed based on the tectonic setting of the region and information available. Instrumental and historical records are compiled from both literature and international earthquake catalogues while conducting catalogue completeness. This study uses state-of-the-art ground motion models to perform probabilistic seismic hazard analysis and develop seismic hazard maps for different return periods in the region. Results are also expressed for selected temples in the region in terms of site-specific uniform hazard spectra. The findings indicate significant seismic activity, with peak ground acceleration in the region ranging from 0.25 to 0.36 g for a return period of 2475 years, 0.22–0.32 g for a return period of 975 years, and 0.18–0.24 g for a return period of 475 years. The updated hazard levels indicate that the literature slightly underestimates hazard in the region under study.

Evolution of the “Golden Royal City”: Analytical study on urban forms of ancient capital cities in Myanmar

The historical cities in Southeast Asia with distinct characteristics are an important part of Asia's cultural heritage system and the ancient capitals of Myanmar are as an example of these civilizational achievements. Their urban forms through history are essential spatial carriers reflecting the traditional local planning thinking. However, the overall understanding has yet to form due to a lack of systematic research. This study aims to complement it by studying the urban forms of almost all Myanmar's ancient capitals based on verifiable spatial elements, works of literature, archaeology documents and field survey. The location, boundary and layout elements are analyzed to classify and characterize these urban forms, and their evolution rules are then summarized. Furthermore, the urban planning characteristics are discussed, indicating that the regulated structure and distinctive image gradually formed, accompanied by increasingly mature planning thinking and methods. The study reveals that the urban form and the planning thinking of Myanmar's ancient capital cities had undergone an evolution with its own characteristics and that the “Golden Royal City” is of unique value in the genealogy of Asian capitals. The findings will contribute to the mutual learning between civilizations and provide a scientific foundation for the heritage conservation.

Characterization of HIV-Related Stigma in Myanmar.

Characterizing HIV-related stigma and its impacts are important for interventions toward their elimination. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 2016 to evaluate enacted and internalized stigma among adult people living with HIV (PLWH) across four cities in Myanmar using the India Stigma Index questionnaire. Multivariable regression analyses were performed to determine differences in measured enacted and internalized stigma outcomes. Among 1,006 participants, 89% reported any stigma indicator, 47% enacted stigma, and 87% internalized stigma. In regression analysis, city and duration of illness were associated with higher enacted stigma, and younger age was associated with higher internalized stigma. Those with HIV duration > 7.4 years had mean enacted stigma nearly 2 units higher than the overall mean. Internalized stigma increased with duration of illness and leveled off at 5 years. PLWH from smaller cities experienced lower stigma. In Myanmar, nearly 90% of PLWH experience stigma, results that reflect a unique transition point.

Urbanization, economic development, and environmental changes in transitional economies in the global south: a case of Yangon

BackgroundTransitional economies in Southeast Asia—a distinct group of developing countries—have experienced rapid urbanization in the past several decades due to the economic transition that fundamentally changed the function of their economies, societies and the environment. Myanmar, one of the least developed transitional economies in Southeast Asia, increased urbanization substantially from 25% in 1990 to 31% in 2019. However, major knowledge gaps exist in understanding the changes in urban land use and land cover and environment and their drivers in its cities.MethodsWe studied Yangon, the largest city in Myanmar, for the urbanization, environmental changes, and the underlying driving forces in a radically transitioned economy in the developing world. Based on satellite imagery and historic land use maps, we quantified the expansion of urban built-up land and constructed the land conversion matrix from 1990 through 2020. We also used three air pollutants to illustrate the changes in environmental conditions. We analyzed the coupled dynamics among urbanization, economic development, and environmental changes. Through conducting a workshop with 20 local experts, we further analyzed the influence of human systems and natural systems on Yangon’s urbanization and sustainability.ResultsThe city of Yangon expanded urban built-up land rapidly from 1990 to 2000, slowed down from 2000 to 2010, but gained momentum again from 2010 to 2020, with most newly added urban built-up land appearing to be converted from farmland and green land in both 1990–2000 and 2010–2020. Furthermore, the air pollutant concentration of CO decreased, but that of NO2 and PM2.5 increased in recent years. A positive correlation exists between population and economic development and the concentration of PM2.5 is highly associated with population, the economy, and the number of vehicles. Finally, the expert panel also identified other potential drivers for urbanization, including the extreme climate event of Cyclone Nargis, capital relocation, and globalization.ConclusionsOur research highlights the dramatic expansion of urban land and degradation of urban environment measured by air pollutants and interdependent changes between urbanization, economic development, and environmental changes.

The secular/religious construction of neighbourhoods in Mandalay, Myanmar: Dhamma‐youns and wards

This article examines the entangled secular/religious construction of neighbourhoods in Mandalay as dynamic, people‐based and relational processes that are centred in dhamma‐youns (dhamma halls) which work within and across administrative ward boundaries. Cities in Myanmar have not followed the trajectories of urbanisation documented in the global North and its socio‐spatial relationships are inextricably bound to the Theravadin Buddhist lifeworld. This entanglement requires attention because international development aid promoted purely secular forms of urban governance between 2011 and 2021, and Buddhist morality remains salient after the February 2021 military coup d'état.

Carbonaceous aerosol and inorganic ions of PM2.5 in Yangon and Mandalay of Myanmar: Seasonal and spatial variations in composition and sources

To characterize the seasonal and spatial patterns of the concentration, composition and sources of the atmospheric fine particles in Myanmar, 72 p.m.2.5 samples were collected during 2016 and 2017 at two urban sites in Yangon and Mandalay, representative coastal and inland cities in Myanmar, with the concentrations of organic carbon (OC), elemental carbon (EC), water-soluble organic carbon (WSOC) and the water-soluble ions being measured. Significantly higher average concentration of PM2.5 was found in Mandalay (147 μg m−3) during the sampling periods than that in Yangon (77 μg m−3). High contribution of organic matter (averaged at 48% and 37% by mass in winter and summer) and low contribution of secondary ions (<15% except that in summer Yangon) were found in both Yangon and Mandalay. Higher contribution of mineral dust to PM2.5 was found in Mandalay compared to Yangon. Meanwhile, higher average concentrations of SO42− and NH4+ in Yangon indicated a higher contribution from coal usage in Yangon. Correlation analysis and the compositional change during the rainfall event (2017/4/14–16 in Yangon) indicated that NO3− was mainly associated with Ca2+, and the high temperature and low humidity during the dry season in Myanmar inhibited the formation of NH4NO3. Regional transport of pollutants should be the important cause of the different seasonal variations for the measured species in Yangon and Mandalay besides the seasonal differences in emission sources. Positive matrix factorization (PMF) analysis showed that vehicle emissions, biomass burning, mineral dust, secondary formation and sea salt were the main sources of PM2.5 in Myanmar.

Effectiveness of joint 3\u2009+\u20091 malaria strategy along China\u2013Myanmar cross border areas

BackgroundCross-border malaria in Laiza City of Myanmar seriously affected Yingjiang County of China and compromised reaching the goal of malaria elimination by 2020. Since 2017, a pilot project on 3 + 1 strategy of joint cross-border malaria prevention and control was carried out for building a malaria buffer in these border areas. Here, 3 were the three preventive lines in China where different focalized approaches of malaria elimination were applied and + 1 was a defined border area in Myanmar where the integrated measures of malaria control were adopted.MethodsA 5-year retrospective analysis (2015 to 2019) was conducted that included case detection, parasite prevalence and vector surveillance. Descriptive statistics was used and the incidence or rates were compared. The annual parasite incidence and the parasite prevalence rate in + 1 area of Myanmar, the annual importation rate in Yingjiang County of China and the density of An. minimus were statistically significant indictors to assess the effectiveness of the 3 + 1 strategy.ResultsIn + 1 area of Myanmar from 2015 to 2019, the averaged annual parasite incidence was (59.11 ± 40.73)/1000 and Plasmodium vivax accounted for 96.27% of the total confirmed cases. After the pilot project, the annual parasite incidence dropped 89% from 104.77/1000 in 2016 to 12.18/1000 in 2019, the microscopic parasite prevalence rate dropped 100% from 0.34% in 2017 to zero in 2019 and the averaged density of An. Minimus per trap-night dropped 93% from 1.92 in June to 0.13 in September. The submicroscopic parasite prevalence rate increased from 1.15% in 2017 to 1.66% in 2019 without significant difference between the two surveys (P = 0.084). In Yingjiang County of China, neither indigenous nor introduced case was reported and 100% cases were imported from Myanmar since 2017. The averaged annual importation rate from 2015 to 2019 was (0.47 ± 0.15)/1000. After the pilot project, the annual importation rate dropped from 0.59/1000 in 2016 to 0.28/1000 in 2019 with an overall reduction of 53% in the whole county. The reduction was 67% (57.63/1000 to 18.01/1000) in the first preventive line, 52% (0.20/1000 to 0.10/1000) in the second preventive line and 36% (0.32/1000 to 0.22/1000) in the third preventive line. The averaged density of An. Minimus per trap-night in the first preventive line dropped 94% from 2.55 in June to 0.14 in September, without significant difference from that of + 1 area of Myanmar (Z value = − 1.18, P value = 0.24).ConclusionThe pilot project on 3 + 1 strategy has been significantly effective in the study areas and a buffer zone of border malaria was successfully established between Laiza City of Myanmar and Yingjiang County of China.

Seismic Safety Assessment of Existing Low-rise RC Buildings with Rapid Visual Screenings and Preliminary Evaluation Methods

Mandalay, the second largest city in Myanmar, is situated near the Sagaing Fault (the major fault in Myanmar). In the Mandalay region, the number of low-rise buildings is much greater than that of high-rise buildings. As such, seismic safety assessments of low-rise buildings play an important role in developing Mandalay as a smart city. In this study, the rapid visual screening (RVS) and preliminary evaluation for 26 numbers of three- to eight-story RC buildings were investigated with three different RVS and preliminary evaluation methods. Based on the RVS methods, the FEMA P154 Level 1 and 2 results gave the highest risk. With the Bangladesh method, the higher the story, the more vulnerable the building. Meanwhile, the Indian method showed a medium risk status. According to the preliminary evaluation, the assessed buildings need a detailed seismic evaluation, except for one building in the Indian method. Similarly, all buildings need a detailed evaluation in the Bangladesh method. The most convenient RVS and preliminary evaluation can be derived from these results for buildings in Mandalay, Myanmar. Moreover, a method can be developed for seismic safety assessments in other ASEAN countries with subsequent research.

Evaluation of peer-to-peer HIV counseling in Myanmar: a measure of knowledge, adherence, and barriers

ABSTRACT In Myanmar, an Asian country with one of the highest HIV-1 prevalence rates, counseling prior to initiating antiretroviral therapy (ART) is standard care, either by a healthcare worker (standard counselor, SC) or trained counselor who is also living with HIV (peer counselor, PC). PC is commonly utilized in Myanmar and other resource-limited settings. However, its benefit over SC is unclear. We conducted a cross-sectional survey of people living with HIV (PLWH), who completed either only PC or only SC before treatment initiation across four cities in Myanmar. Participants were evaluated for HIV knowledge, stigma, antiretroviral adherence, barriers to care, social support satisfaction and attitudes regarding both counseling processes. Bivariate analyses and multivariable mixed effects modeling were conducted to compare differences in these measures among PC and SC participants. Among 1006 participants (49% PC; 51% SC), 52% were females and median age was 37 years in those receiving PC and 40 years in those receiving SC. More than 70% of participants in both groups achieved up to grade school education. The average duration since HIV diagnosis was 4.6 years for PC and 5.7 years for SC participants. HIV knowledge and attitudes regarding counseling were good in both groups and more PC participants credited their HIV counselor for knowledge (75% vs 63%, p < 0.001). Compared to SC, PC participants had lower enacted stigma (Incidence Rate Ratio (IRR) 0.75, Confidence Interval (CI) [0.65, 0.86]), mean internalized stigma (−0.24, CI [−0.34, −0.14]), and risk of antiretroviral therapy non-adherence (Odds Ratio 0.59, CI [0.40, 0.88]), while reporting higher levels of barriers to care (9.63, CI [8.20, 11.75]). Our findings demonstrate potential benefits of PC compared to SC, and support the utilization of PC to enhance HIV health outcomes within the unique societal and geographical context of Myanmar, and possibly beyond.

Transport accessibility, residential satisfaction, and moving intention in a context of limited travel mode choice

Abstract This paper examines the effects of transport accessibility on residential satisfaction and moving intention when travel mode choice is limited. It uses the case of Yangon City in Myanmar, where bus is the dominant transport mode, automobile dependence is low, and the use of two-wheel vehicle is restricted in some areas of the city. These characteristics altogether indicate that the potential bias arising from the unobserved differences in people’s travel mode preferences can be minimized. Based on a sample of about 5,200 residents living close to bus stops, structural equation modeling is used to test the effects of objective and subjective measures of bus stop accessibility on residential satisfaction and moving intention. The results show that high perceived bus stop accessibility—not short distance between the residence and the nearest bus stop—is associated with high residential satisfaction, and neither measures of bus stop accessibility is associated with moving intention. These findings indicate that the perception of bus stop accessibility matters for residential satisfaction rather than the actual distance between the residence and the nearest bus stop, and the low satisfaction with bus stop accessibility is not expected to induce households to consider moving to a new residence or location. The actual distance between the residence and the nearest bus stop has the strongest influence on perceived bus stop accessibility, followed by the satisfaction with neighborhood’s safety and security, holding household characteristics constant. From a policy perspective, the findings underscore the relevance of including subjective measures of accessibility in designing or improving the accessibility of transport systems. To aid planning, there is a need to explore the objective factors that underlie people’s satisfaction with transport accessibility. Moreover, an integrated housing and transport policy could bring significant gains to residents, as desirable neighborhood features are associated with not only high perceived bus stop accessibility but also high residential satisfaction and low moving intention.

Alcohol consumption patterns among men who have sex with men in major cities of Myanmar: A cross-sectional study.

Background: Alcohol consumption patterns vary widely across the regions of the world. Although previous studies have focused on the sexual risk behaviours among men who have sex with men (MSM), studies regarding binge alcohol drinking among MSM in Myanmar are scarce. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted to identify the alcohol consumption patterns among MSM aged over 18 years in two major cities of Myanmar where the MSM population is higher than other regions. Purposive sampling was applied and sampling was made through Myanmar MSM network. Face-to-face interviews were conducted using a structured questionnaire. Patterns of alcohol consumption were described as frequency/percentage and mean/median as appropriate. Bivariate analysis was also done to find out the association between types of MSM and binge drinking. Results: A total of 256 MSM included in the study (mean age, 27.33±7.7 years). Of 256 participants, 225 MSM had the experience of alcohol consumption in their lifetime (225/256, 87.9%). Among ever drinkers, 152 MSM consumed alcohol within three months (152/225, 67.6%). Regarding beer consumption, the highest proportions of MSM from both groups (42.8%, 36.8%) consumed 1-3 times per week. Overall, 57.2% of young MSM and 41.2% of adult MSM consumed beer together with their friends. Nearly 34% of young MSM and nearly 38% of adult MMS consumed beer at gatherings of friends. At different time periods, higher proportions of Thange (partners of MSM) had experienced of binge drinking than apwint (open) and apone (hidden) (p<0.05). Conclusions: The current study identified the alcohol consumption patterns in terms of type, amount, frequency at different time periods among MSM in major cities of Myanmar. It is suggested to develop and implement alcohol control policy for MSM since the proportion of current drinkers as well as binge drinking higher among these groups.

GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND FOUNDATION CONDITION OF PEGU GROUP IN YANGON AREA

Yangon is highly dense populated city in Myanmar. Today Yangon area has undergone very rapid development and expansion because of its socio-economic cum political significance. Therefore it is required to expand the new satellite town. Therefore, geotechnical site characteristics and zonation of Yangon area is carry out. In Yangon, three geological rock units such as alluvial deposits, Irrawaddy Formation and Pegu Group can be found. For this research, geotechnical characteristics and foundation condition of Pegu Group is investigated. Based on the sample collected and the laboratory results, foundation condition of Pegu Group are studied. The purpose of the research is to point out the engineering characteristics and foundation properties of Pegu Group in the Yangon Area. The Pegu Group consists of three lithostratigraphic units recognizable from surface geologic characters and subsurface data. They are Besapet Alternation, Thardugan Sandstone and Hlawga Shale from youngest to old. Besapet Alternation consists of shales and thinly laminated sandstone which are exposed in the vicinity of Besapet Lake and also exposed behind the police training school. Besapet Alternation is characterized by blunish grey to greenish grey, bedded to nonbedded, silty shale with very thin parting of micaceous sandstones. Thardugan Sandstone consists of blunish grey to brownish grey, fine to medium grained micaceous and argillaceous sandstone with ferruginous bands. They are exposed around the Thardukan Pagoda, southwestern and south of Hlawga Lake.It exposes as massive body sandstone around Thadukan Pagoda and thin bedded sandstone at police training school. Hlawga Shale consists of shale and laminated clay. They occur at the low land area at the west of Hlawga Lake beside the Thardugan Sandstone. According USCS classification, CL, ML, MH, SC, SM and SW soil types are found as residual soil in Pegu Group. The ultimate bearing capacity of residual soil of Pegu Group is 15 kPa to 600 kPa. The unconfined compressive strength of Thardugan Sandstone varies from 8 MPa to 61 MPa.

Increasing trends in admissions due to non-communicable diseases over 2012 to 2017: findings from three large cities in Myanmar

BackgroundGlobally, cardiovascular diseases, chronic respiratory diseases, cancers, and diabetes are the four major non-communicable diseases (NCDs) contributing to more than 80% of mortality and morbidity due to NCDs. In Myanmar, the proportional mortality rate due to NCDs increased from 46.9% in 2000 to 68% in 2017. However, the trends and patterns of four major NCDs or their hospital admissions are not known. In this regard, we aimed to assess the trends and profile of admissions with four major NCDs using final diagnosis coded in International Classification of Diseases-2010 version (ICD-10) from medical record data of the large tertiary hospitals in different regions of Myanmar.ResultsOf the 774,970 total admissions in the study hospitals, the median and interquartile range (IQR) age was 39 (25–55) years and 51.6% were males. Over a 6-year period, there was not only 2.2-fold increase in the number of admissions due to any of four major NCDs but also their proportion increased significantly from 18.8% in 2012 to 25.4% in 2017 (chi-square for trend, p value < 0.001). The number of admissions due to cancers, cardiovascular diseases, and chronic respiratory diseases also showed linear increasing trends at the rate of 1741 (95% CI 766 to 2715), 1797 (95% CI 345 to 3249), and 597 (95% CI 530 to 612) per year, respectively. Though the admissions with diabetes increased over the years, the rate of increase of 284 (95% CI − 60 to 628) per year was not statistically significant. Among cancer admissions, colorectal (13.1%), breast (13.0%), and lung (11.0%) cancers were the commonest. Stroke (30.6%) and ischemic heart disease (21.9%) admissions were the highest among the cardiovascular diseases. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (35.5%) and type 2 diabetes (53.9%) were commonest among chronic respiratory diseases and diabetes, respectively.ConclusionThere was a disproportionate increase in NCD admissions which requires tertiary health facilities to increase their infrastructure and trained workforce to cater to such admissions. The primary health care facilities have to be strengthened for prevention, early detection, and efficient management of NCDs to prevent life-threatening complications requiring hospitalization.

Acquisition of Ground Information in Downtown Yangon for Bosai Operation Support System

Yangon is one of the most populated and socio-economically important cities in Myanmar. Unfortunately, it is located in a moderately active-seismic area, and significant damage and loss will be incurred if an earthquake occurs there in the future. The seismogenic Sagaing Fault passes 40 km to the E of Yangon, which has experienced several destructive earthquakes in the past. The urban area studied here, Kyauktada, Pazundaung, and Botahtaung townships, are located mostly on a soft alluvial plain, which is mainly composed of sand, silt, and clay, which are sediments prone to amplify seismic waves. The Yangon Bosai Operation Support System (BOSS), designed to establish a proper disaster management system based on the potential damage that a future earthquake might cause, is under development. BOSS has two components damage prediction and damage response – which are based on predicted damage and current response capability and practices in Myanmar. For damage prediction, major inputs include information on the underlying soils, building construction and associated fragility functions, based on different building types. Microtremor survey is a useful tool for reviewing underlying soil layer information, as this can significantly affect vulnerability assessments and the identification of potential damages. Microtremor surveys and analyses were therefore conducted at 88 sites throughout the studied urban areas to acquire key ground information for BOSS. Our analyses showed that the fundamental frequency of horizontal to vertical spectral ratio (H/V ratio) of microtremors generally ranged 0.6–2.4 Hz, while the peak amplitude was between 1.3 and 4.0. Soil thickness ranged 60–210 m, and the average shear wave velocity over the ground’s upper 30 m, Vs30, was in the range 180–560 ms-1. All outcomes from this research will become key input parameters for BOSS development in Yangon.

Epidemic of influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 analyzed by full genome sequences and the first case of oseltamivir-resistant strain in Myanmar 2017.

A community outbreak of human influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 virus strains was observed in Myanmar in 2017. We investigated the circulation patterns, antigenicity, and drug resistance of 2017 influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses from Myanmar and characterized the full genome of influenza virus strains in Myanmar from in-patients and out-patients to assess the pathogenicity of the viruses. Nasopharyngeal swabs were collected from out-patients and in-patients with acute respiratory tract infections in Yangon and Pyinmana City in Myanmar during January-December 2017. A total of 215 out-patients and 18 in-patients infected with A(H1N1)pdm09 were detected by virus isolation and real-time RT-PCR. Among the positive patients, 90.6% were less than 14 years old. Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) antibody titers against A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses in Myanmar were similar to the recommended Japanese influenza vaccine strain for 2017-2018 seasons (A/Singapore/GP1908/2015) and WHO recommended 2017 southern hemisphere vaccine component (A/Michigan/45/2015). Phylogenetic analysis of the hemagglutinin sequence showed that the Myanmar strains belonged to the genetic subclade 6B.1, possessing mutations of S162N and S164T at potential antigenic sites. However, the amino acid mutation at position 222, which may enhance the severity of disease and mortality, was not found. One case with no prior history of oseltamivir treatment possessed H275Y mutated virus in neuraminidase (NA), which confers resistance to oseltamivir and peramivir with elevated IC50 values. The full genome sequence of Myanmar strains showed no difference between samples from in-patients and out-patients, suggesting no additional viral mutations associated with patient severity. Several amino acid changes were observed in PB2, PB1, and M2 of Myanmar strains when compared to the vaccine strain and other Asian strains. However, no mutations associated with pathogenicity were found in the Myanmar strains, suggesting that viral factors cannot explain the underlying reasons of the massive outbreak in Myanmar. This study reported the first detection of an oseltamivir-resistant influenza virus in Myanmar, highlighting the importance of continuous antiviral monitoring and genetic characterization of the influenza virus in Myanmar.

World heritage sustainable development policy &amp; local implementation: Site management issues using a case study of Sri Ksetra at Pyu ancient cities in Myanmar

AbstractIn November 2015, State Parties to the World Heritage Convention approved a resolution adopting a policy integrating sustainable development into World Heritage conservation (WH Policy). A central component of the WH Policy was an expectation for participatory models of management involving local communities in site management. This paper uses a case study of Sri Ksetra in Pyu Ancient Cities, Myanmar's first entry onto the World Heritage list, to identify how management practices toward local communities can frustrate the implementation of WH Policy goals. The paper argues that the implementation of WH Policy involves not only the contents of policy statements but also the actions of site management practices, such that efforts to promote sustainable development via community participation require consideration of both the articulation of appropriate management systems in formal policy documents as well as the practice of appropriate conduct by those systems.

Land use change, carbon stocks and tree species diversity in green spaces of a secondary city in Myanmar, Pyin Oo Lwin.

Myanmar undergoes rapid urban expansion and experiences its negative impacts, often due to the loss of urban green spaces. National and local authorities lack sufficient knowledge, capacity and plans on how to preserve urban green spaces and benefit from their ecosystem services, with such gaps being particularly pronounced in the smaller secondary cities. This study focuses in such as secondary city, Pyin Oo Lwin, and analyzes land use and land cover (LULC) change, tree diversity and carbon stored in aboveground and belowground biomass, and soil. We focus on the main green spaces of the city, which contain different configurations of urban forest, grassland and agricultural land. Remote sensing analysis tracked LULC change between 1988 and 2018, and showed the extensive increase of built-up area, and the decline of urban forests and urban farms. Even though a substantial amount of green spaces has been converted to built-up land, the remaining urban green spaces are still serving as an important habitat for many different tree species, with a total of 82 species from 35 families observed in the different green spaces. Furthermore, these green spaces contain significant carbon stocks, which are, however, highly variable: botanical garden (383.67 t/ha), coffee farms (355.64 t/ha), monasteries (277.14 t/ha), golf course (208.45 t/ha), and seasonal farms (123.22 t/ha). Nevertheless, the extensive LULC change has reduced carbon stocks from 2.41 Mt (1988) to 1.65 Mt (2018). The findings of this study provide a better understanding of LULC change in secondary cities of Myanmar, and build an evidence base on how urban green spaces preservation and green infrastructure development can contribute to green economic transitions, and sustainable, resilient, and low-carbon cities in the country.

Land Surface Temperature Changes of Two Economic Cities in Myanmar: (Case Study on Yangon and Mandalay Cities’ Environment)

Land Surface Temperature Changes of Two Economic Cities in Myanmar: (Case Study on Yangon and Mandalay Cities’ Environment)

Myanmar’s tourism

PurposeStudies show that internet has become a major force propelling growth in tourism sector in many countries. An appropriate diffusion of the information and communication technology (ICT) services can facilitate visibility of hotels and lodges on search sites and third-party booking websites and thus influence demand. It also helps leverage the use of social media for promotion and customer acquisition purposes. Recently, Myanmar, with impressive historical world heritage sites, is witnessing a tourist boom; more hotels are opening up and achieving competitive advantage by offering free internet connectivity to guests and locating their premises in the vicinity of an ICT infrastructure. The purpose of this paper is to investigate ICT readiness to support the lodging industry in Myanmar by focusing on one sub-index of the Network Readiness Index (NRI, a term heavily used by World Economic Forum). The paper focuses on the “Network Use” component of NRI, pertaining to the effect of the “quality of the Internet connection” available to lodges, and its association with the following dimensions: customer service: the availability of ICT services to guests, such as internet connectivity and availability of ATM in the vicinity; digital marketing: the use of social media, keeping records of guests and analyzing aggregate data to extract business insights; and business-to-business online booking: the use of online booking via major third-party intermediary websites like Expedia, Booking.com and Agoda.com.Design/methodology/approachSurveys were conducted in three major touristic cities in Myanmar: Bagan, Mandalay and the capital city, Nay Pyi Taw. A total of 101 valid questionnaires were used. Survey questions were centered around the following themes: internet connection problems, digital marketing activities, and online booking directly or via third party digital intermediary. The data are presented and interpreted by descriptive statistics and regression analysis.FindingsThough, Myanmar is new to internet and commercial use of ICT, the awareness of the importance of leveraging social media and online booking for business development is surprisingly high in the lodging sector. On average, about 80 percent of surveyed hotels are present on the WWW through a dedicated hotel website. However, most websites lack an online booking capability. As a result, and due to a global trend, online booking through third-party intermediaries has become the dominant option for hotel booking arrangements in Myanmar. Agoda, founded in Bangkok in 2002, was found to be the number one choice for online booking intermediary in Myanmar, followed by Booking.com. Analysis of the logistic regression revealed that it was highly likely that areas around ATMs have better internet connectivity. As expected, it was also found that it is very unlikely that hotels reporting a problem in internet connectivity will be able to provide internet service to their guests. Despite the presence of problems in internet connectivity in Mandalay and Bagan cities, located away from the capital; most hotels in these cities resort to leveraging social media for promotion and customer/guest development. The analysis also revealed that cities located away from the capital are more aggressive in leverage online third-booking intermediaries.Research limitations/implicationsWhile researchers were hoping for a higher participation rate in the survey, especially in the city of Mandalay, data collection was challenging, a number of hotels/lodges denied participation. This may have some implications on the generalization of results. However, over 70 and 45 percent of hotels/lodges in the capital city and the ancient city of Bagan, respectively, had participated in the survey.Practical implicationsTourism has a great potential for growth in Myanmar. This research recommends ways to achieve and sustain competitive advantage for the lodging sector, which is vital for tourism.Originality/valueThough a considerable research exists on tourism and the recent advances of the ICT sector in Myanmar, the country’s readiness for the actual usage of the internet for the development of tourism has not been specifically addressed. This paper explores this with compelling research findings useful for policy makers as well as players in the tourism sector.