City Festivals Research Articles

Соціально-мистецький проєкт у Полтаві: історичні передумови та сучасне втілення

The article examines the prerequisites for the emergence of the artistic community of Poltava and the organization of the first socio-artistic projects in the city. An analogy is drawn with modern cultural and educational projects that have been implemented over the past 10 years, in particular, such as “Kadetarium”, “Poltava Art Territory”, “Local History Art Weekend”. The prerequisites for the formation of the artistic community in Poltava, the characteristic features of artistic groups and their influence on the further cultural context of the city are revealed. The background and factors that influenced the emergence of a modern artistic community in the city are analyzed. The spheres of interest of the artists of this community and the methods of their implementation are considered. The increasing of professional strengthening and acquisition of exhibition experience by students of the Faculty of Architecture of the Poltava National Technical University are described in detail. Attention is focused on the relationship between social events in Ukraine in 2013–2014 and the activation of exhibition projects of the Poltava community. It was determined that the key role was played by oneday exhibitions of modern art “Kadetariums”, which were actually large city festivals. They focused on saving an outstanding architectural monument – the building of the Cadet Corps. The diversity and democracy of these events had a significant social effect, which is why the term “social and artistic project” was born. The “Poltava Art Territory” movement was formed, based on these exhibitions, which was realized in subsequent festivals during 2016–2017 at a different location, but with the same emphasis on the value of the city’s architectural heritage. The department of fine art and decorative art of Taras Shevchenko Luhansk National University played a significant role in it. After a two-year break, an active public initiative created a new festival format “Local History Art Weekend”, which was embodied in four festivals in 2019, 2020, 2023 and 2024.

Pioneer Valley Jazz Shares, Connecticut River Valley, Western Massachusetts, United States

Pioneer Valley Jazz Shares, Connecticut River Valley, Western Massachusetts, United States

The New City Festivals: Activities, Organizers, Beneficiaries and Interests on The Occasion of Kapana Fest

The festivalization of cities and their transformation into „eventful” centers of the postmodern urban lifestyle has been a global trend since the mid-1990s. The aim of the text is to analyze the features of the new city festivals in Plovdiv by analyzing the Kapana Fest, examining their activities, audience, organizers and beneficiaries and reaching conclusions about their socio-economic and cultural significance. Festivals are a crossroads of a number of interests, whose bearers are different socio-group actors – local government, organizers, participants, visitors, business representatives and residents of the local community. The article presents the results of an empirical sociological research carried out using qualitative methods within the project “Local festivals: A resource of local communities for coping with crises”, funded by National Science Fund – Ministry of Education and Science of Republic of Bulgaria (KP-06-H45/5 from 30.11.2020). The research approach used is in the thematic field of social stratification, focusing on the socio-group characteristics and interests of the various actors associated with the festivals. The new city festivals are understood as part of the postmodern lifestyle, with its characteristic consumption patterns and leisure patterns. The question whose answer is sought in the text is: who are the winning socio-group actors from the huge social, economic and cultural potential of the Kapana Fest in Plovdiv?

City and festival: spaces of “site” identity, territorial development and branding

The article considers the spaces of city festivals, their research as a special form of the “site” identity manifestation, a way to make the urban realm more comfortable and a component of territorial branding and development driver. Today a festival involvement into the system of territorial development and using it as the means of building a positive reputation for the site and increasing its investment attractiveness is relevant and explained, among other things, by common interest in the formation of the quality environment in Russian cities and the competition in the promotion of territorial vital priorities. The paper includes the analysis of traditional festivals as the basis of a modern urban life and culture, on the one hand; the actual trends of existing of the city festive culture as a component of urban daily living activities, development and branding space, on the other hand. It also stipulates for the identification of the image function of modern festivals for territories. It is important to address the festival as a form of the interpretation of traditions and immersion into the “site” culture, a means for improving the quality of life in the environment. The paper puts a special emphasis on the importance of the festive living space in a city as a space integrating traditions, popular trends and commercial interests (including touristic business interests).

Running in everyday life and festive culture of the Renaissance and the Modern Age

The subject of this research is determination of the peculiarities of running as a type of activity in the sociocultural situation of the Renaissance and the Modern Age of the Old and New World. The relevance of studying the socially important aspects of running in everyday life and festive, carnival culture of the XV – XIX centuries is substantiated by the fact that namely this period marks the onset of mental requests and revival of physical practices, which in 1896 would become the heart of the First Olympic Games, the beginning and culmination of which were the athletic competitions. The ancient ideal of kalokagathia at this time is instilled with the ideas of self-sufficiency and self-projectivity of a person, whose creative aspirations equally captivate the spirit and the body. Running develops physical and mental qualities that broaden human capabilities, being that instrument for existential growth through overcoming the boundaries of physical and spiritual “normality”, conditioned by the stereotypes and norms of everyday life. The author views running from the perspective of culturological concepts of “everyday life”, “festivity”, “carnival”, as well as the binary opposition sacred/profane. The fields of application of the acquired results include social philosophy, philosophical anthropology, and philosophy of sports. The novelty of this research consists in the interpretation of endurance running as an existential measurement of everyday life, the method of communication between different types of communities and population groups, and formation of the prototype of a “cultural body” of that time. Running is examined as a type of activity that is characteristic mostly to the lower, marginal social classes. Participation in the city festival in the format of a “carnival” running was a way to integrate into society, a manifestation of collective solidarity. Their buffoonery running distracted the audience from the everyday routine, becoming its counterpoint. The author also determines the contribution of the upper social classes to the development of running practices d: economic (funding of professional runners and material reward for the non-professional winners of the city festivals); practical (amateur running or other athletic practices as a component of a gentleman's everyday life); ideological (Renaissance humanists assumed that physical activity is a non-religious way to overcome time through maintaining physical well-being).

Moroccan City Festivals, Cultural Diplomacy and Urban Political Agency

Over the last two decades, cultural festivals have been established and consolidated in cities across Morocco. Their proliferation has coincided with the reign of Mohammed VI, well known as an enthusiastic and extremely wealthy patron of the arts, and the concomitant state-controlled democratization of Moroccan politics and society. Drawing on two examples—the Marrakech International Film Festival and the Mawazine music festival in Rabat—this article interrogates the ways in which festivals and the urban scale combine to function as vehicles for cultural diplomacy. Contra the common tendency in recent policy debates that perceive the city (with or without its administration) as an active agent in translocal cultural relations, I argue for a more nuanced perspective that understands the urban festival as a diplomatic platform through which the cultural politics of the state are rescaled and where a range of actors contest ideas about the local, national and global trajectories of society and cultural life.

Festival value in multicultural contexts: City festivals in South Africa

Worldwide, the number and variety of cultural festivals have grown dramatically. Many areas see festivals as an important way to attract tourists, and their spending, to a region, resulting in a positive economic impact. While they offer important opportunities for artistic producers and audiences, there is growing pressure for festival organizers to demonstrate their value to society beyond their economic impact. Like many countries, South Africa has a strong focus on increasing diverse cultural participation, demonstrating the social, nonmarket values of events that receive public funding. Using data from two South African festivals, the article uses a valuation framework developed by the South African Cultural Observatory to demonstrate measures of audience diversity, the use of quality of life measures to gauge the impact of culture on well-being, and the use of community focus groups to assess the impact of participation on social cohesion and capacity building.

Cultural Activities of the Plungė Garrison, 1934–1940

The 4th Artillery Regiment and the 6th Infantry Regiment of Duke Margis of Pilėnai were relocated to Plungė as part of the efforts to strengthen the defensive capacities of Lithuania’s western territory. At first, soldiers were quartered in the buildings situated in Plungė park and later moved to the newly-built barracks. Therefore, the major aim of the article is to reveal the input of the garrison soldiers into the cultural life of Plungė as well as to contribute to the research on the topic which so far has been little studied. The article shows how the park was reorganised to adjust the new space to life and military functions, and how it was set up for the purposes of culture and free time of the army and the townspeople. It provided an opportunity to actively engage in exercise in a partly-closed space for the town dwellers and to take part in various events for the military. The park also hosted various celebrations of public holidays, summer outdoor parties for young people known as gegužinė, orchestra performances, and even served as a stage for soldiers performing songs. The garrison’s military brass band was popular and well-known in Plungė and the neighbouring towns and villages. The band would play on the occasion of seeing off and meeting soldiers; it would also perform during city festivals and gegužinė outdoor parties, thus becoming an inseparable part of the town’s cultural life. Soldiers would hold the celebrations of the Lithuanian Armed Forces, show jumping events and Military and Public Days during which they would organise parades, horse shows to the public as well as demonstrate their military preparedness. The garrison soldiers staged plays, delivered lectures to local residents and even had their own reading-room. Wearing a full-dress uniform, the regiment soldiers would attend religious and town festivals. The article shows that through involvement of the public in cultural activities, celebration of public holidays, and promotion of patriotic and civic spirit in society, the garrison became an important factor in the provincial life of independent Lithuania, which did not only have a significant influence on the town of Plungė but also earned respect among its residents.

Festivals in the Greek East: From the Early Empire to the Middle Byzantine Era by Fritz Graf

Reviewed by: Festivals in the Greek East: From the Early Empire to the Middle Byzantine Era by Fritz Graf Jacob A. Latham Fritz Graf Festivals in the Greek East: From the Early Empire to the Middle Byzantine Era Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015 Pp. xvi + 363. $120.00. Festivals in the Greek East ranges widely geographically (from Palestine and Anatolia to Italy and Gaul), temporally (from Augustus to Constantine Porphyrogennetos), and even topically, with incubation and magic finding a place in a work dedicated to public rituals. The book proceeds more or less chronologically and remains close to the evidence, eschewing theorization, for the most part, in favor of thick description. The depth of coverage, as might be expected, varies considerably, which, in combination with its scope, renders the book as a whole a bit unwieldy. Nonetheless, founded on a rich appreciation of both the festivals themselves and their historiography over the longue durée and grounded in epigraphic and documentary sources, this work demonstrates the malleability and adaptability of public festivals, whose reinvention allowed them to survive greatly changing circumstances. In two long chapters, Part One looks at festivals in the eastern Mediterranean before Constantine. Chapter One offers a kind of greatest hits of Greek civic festivals during the high empire, drawing on some of the best known epigraphic examples, such as the Salutaris foundation from Ephesus. Despite the relative inattention of both ancient Greek authors and modern scholars of Greek religion, public festivals flourished; they were lavish and long-lasting productions. Chapter Two turns to civic festivals of the city of Rome that were exported by the legions or imported at local initiative. More specifically, this chapter treats rabbinic responses recorded in the Talmud of the Land of Israel to a series of widely celebrated Roman city festivals: the Kalends (of January), the Saturnalia, and others such as the Rosalia, for which at least one Jewish funerary bequest provided funds. Unsurprisingly, the rabbis were a bit anxious about these popular festivals, celebration of which was an important element of imperial social belonging. Part Two explores the fate of these Roman festivals after Constantine and the development of a Christian public liturgy. Chapter Three examines the legal treatment of traditional cult festivals, most of which were demoted, while Christian holidays were steadily provided monopoly protection. Some festivals, however—the Kalends and the Natalis Urbis of Rome and Constantinople—were explicitly maintained. Chapter Four addresses Christian concerns about the Kalends, beginning with Libanius's reaction (possibly) to John Chrysostom's full throated denunciation of the festival. Christian opposition continued in both East (Asterius of Amaseia and John Lydus) and West (Augustine, Peter Chrysologus, and Caesarius of Arles) and even occupied a number of church councils (Tours, Autun, in Trullo, Braga) into the seventh century. Chapter Five examines the Lupercalia from Augustus to Bishop Gelasius of Rome (ca. 596) in the West and Constantine Porphyrogennetos (tenth century) in the East. After a brief description of the imperial festival, the chapter offers a kind of commentary [End Page 326] on a letter of Gelasius, in which the bishop attempted to dissuade elites from their continuing patronage of the festival—unsuccessfully, as Gelasius admits. The chapter then jumps ahead several centuries to walk the reader through Constantine Porphyrogennetos's Book of Ceremonies, in which a very different, and now moveable, festival was celebrated under its traditional name. Chapter Six is a bit of an outlier that treats John Malalas's etiologies of Roman festivals in order to demonstrate how these festivals were interpreted. Malalas worked out of the classical tradition, but ultimately updated the origin stories to suit better a late imperial socio-political situation. Chapter Seven returns to public festivals with an analysis of the Brumalia. In the Latin West, the Bruma seems to have been a late fall ritual involving the exchange of gifts, which continued at least into the eighth century. In the Greek East, the Bruma was reinvented as the Brumalia, a twenty-three-day-long festival—a kind of repackaged Saturnalia—that was a festival of social inversion. Chapter Eight revisits the Kalends, a particularly important festival for a very long time. If one expands the rather exiguous...

Fine-Grained Urban Event Detection and Characterization Based on Tensor Cofactorization

Understanding the irregular crowd movement and social activities caused by urban events such as city festivals and concerts can benefit event management and city planning. Although various urban data can be exploited to detect such irregularities, the crowd mobility data (e.g., bike trip records) are usually in a mixed state with several basic patterns (e.g., eating, working, and recreation), making it difficult to separate concurrent events happening in the same region. The social activity data (e.g., social network check-ins) are usually oversparse, hindering the fine-grained characterization of urban events. In this paper, we propose a tensor cofactorization-based data fusion framework for fine-grained urban event detection and characterization leveraging crowd mobility data and social activity data. First, we adopt a nonnegative tensor cofactorization approach to decompose the crowd mobility tensor into several basic patterns, with the help of the auxiliary social activity tensor. We then use a multivariate-outlier-detection-based method to identify irregularities from the decomposed basic patterns and aggregate them to detect and characterize the associated urban events. We evaluate the performance of our framework using real-world bike trip data and check-in data from New York City and Washington, DC, respectively. Results show that by fusing the two types of urban data, our method achieves fine-grained urban event detection and characterization in both cities and consistently outperforms the baselines.

Roman festivals in the Greek East: from the early empire to the Middle Byzantine Era

Part I. Festivals in the Greek East Before Constantine: 1. Greek city festivals in the Imperial age 2. Roman festivals in Eastern cities Part II. Roman Festivals in the Greek East After Constantine: 3. Theodosius' reform of the legal calendar 4. Contested festivals in the fourth century 5. The Lupercalia from Augustus to Constantine Porphyrogennetos 6. John Malalas and ritual aetiology 7. The Brumalia 8. Kalendae Ianuariae again, and again 9. Christian liturgy and the Imperial festival tradition Part III. Christianity and Private Ritual: 10. Christian incubation 11. Magic in a Christian Empire Epilogue. The persistence of festivals and the end of sacrifices.

Annual City Festivals as Tools for Sustainable Competitiveness: The World Port Days Rotterdam

Many cities organize annual local festivals for the positive effects on urban development, although success is far from straightforward. This article reviews a case study of the World Port Days in Rotterdam in order to demonstrate how annual city festivals can contribute to sustainable competitiveness, despite limitations as well. We show how this maritime event—that is jointly organized by the business community, the Port Authority and the City Government—offers benefits for citizens as well as for firms. Our empirical results unveil that the business value of the event includes generation of societal support, image improvement, labor market development and networking, while the value for society refers to education, leisure and to a certain degree to social inclusion. The direct value of the event for business in terms of sales and recruitment is limited, while the long-term effects of educational function deserve further attention. Finally, we provide policy lessons that, when properly contextualized, other cities may help to use annual local festivals as tools for sustainable competitiveness.

City festivals and urban development: does place matter?

After 30 years in the Dutch city of The Hague, the North Sea Jazz Festival (NSJF) has left its birthplace, prompted by the partial demolition of its venue. Although the current organizer of this premier international jazz festival, Mojo Concerts, would have preferred to relocate it within the city, the local government was unable to retain it. The move to Rotterdam in 2006 illustrates the process whereby cities actively compete for festivals. This paper examines the place dependency of a jazz festival by juxtaposing the perspectives of key actors: the local government of the two host cities, The Hague and Rotterdam; the festival organizer Mojo Concerts; and the visitors to the NSJF. The relocation is explained in light of the motives of the stakeholders and the perception of the audience, as gleaned from in-depth interviews and a large-scale survey held before and after the move. The interviews indicate that local governments regard festivals as important urban showcases, although the survey reveals that the direct links between the festival and host city are weak. The conclusions connect insights from the case study to the scant literature on the extent to which place really matters for a festival and vice versa.

Mérida, 1870-1920: Historia, memoria e imagen (review)

Reviewed by: Mérida, 1870-1920: Historia, memoria e imagen Graciela María Viñuales Mérida, 1870-1920: Historia, memoria e imagen. Eligia Calderón Trejo. Mérida: Universidad de los Andes, 2012. 476 pp. Maps, photos, tables. US$20.00 paper (ISBN: 978-980-11-1460-4). This new volume covers a series of spaces in the urban history of Mérida, Venezuela, dealing with a broad and integrated set of critical phenomena. From the outset it is possible to appreciate the general path of the analysis through the sequence of its chapters, the introduction providing a clear indication for the reader to appreciate the multiple perspectives on which the work is based, as well as the state of the art of Venezuelan urban history, and also the specifics of this case study. Readers are also provided with a succinct account of the various methods by which the analysis was undertaken. On entering into the text of the book, one's attention is attracted to the way in which the author addresses and dissects the city, not so much as often seen, focusing on the accumulation of urban demographic data, and cold and old historical information, but rather proceeding along distinct analytical paths. The title of the first chapter alone: "The city as cultural product" represents a primary viewpoint; it is there where the idea that becomes the core of the book emerges: the merging of history with memory and the image, matters that from beginning are fundamental to the whole investigation. The following chapters describe the city's physical context, the administrative organization with its multiple and persistent problems, the surrounding territory, and the developing connections between Mérida and its region that gradually emerged. All this is colored by what the author calls "the perfume of the time"—an issue ever necessary when we judge the past. The analysis of the periodical documentation and the urban intellectual environment elaborated in the third chapter also provide a presentation of one of the richest sources on which the rest of the investigation is based. Gradually the city progressed with its newly-established rules: the extended role of the municipality, the provision of services that would accentuate cleanliness and hygiene, and the material renovation of the structures of its significant institutions such as the cathedral and the university and the seats [End Page 208] of government, administration, education and health. The transformation of industries soon exceeded the artisanal, some of them created with greater hope than realistic promise, projecting Merida as an attractive commercial center, as well as the locus of important business houses. The author describes in detail the state of the main functions of the city, from doctors and pharmacies, to shops and stores and its various lines of business, while not neglecting the issue of the family homes, their designs, their furniture, their customs and the many changes emerging towards the end of the study period, when the patio-rich mansions began to be subdivided, and their former long-established residents moving out to peripheral urban sites. The work next moves to a detailed study of a set of blocks (manzanas) in the center of the city, to deepen our knowledge of urban change at the micro-level. The choice is based on their location close to the main square and the availability of cadastral data which allows a better understanding of many of the issues dealt with in previous sections, especially regarding the use of houses and family customs of sharing urban space. This section of the book not only explains the evolution of private space, the intimate relationship between familia extendida and cuadra, it also shows what happens in public urban space when the city's festivals, carnivals, theater, bullfights, music and religious holidays and civic parades temporarily take over the urban core. Streets become sites for celebrations, sometimes within a certain area, other times via routes identified around the many squares, as shown on the well-drawn maps. It highlights case studies of some of the most important centennial celebrations of heroes, especially Independence on July 5, 1911, which included a week of festivities that took complete control of public space, linking the...

Švenčių ir miesto erdvės santykis: trijų Klaipėdos miesto švenčių sociologija

The article explores complex relationship between festivals, urban spaces and consumption. The study of three city festivals - Sea Festival, Jazz Festival and short films festival ‘Tinklai’ - in Klaipeda, Lithuania, over the period 1991-2010 reveals that changes of festivals’ locations in the city were mainly stimulated by consumption. The festivals gradually move to those urban spaces, which lost their functionality and are easily converted into the temporary places of controlled consumption. Despite the fact that usually festivals set urban spaces for new sociality of emotional community, physical arrangements of festival territories reproduce more general patterns of social distinctions and hierarchies. Urban festivals convert postindustrial territories into places of consumption and shape discourse of consuming city. Methodological assumptions of the study are based on P. Bourdieu’s typology of taste, M. de Certeau’s idea of urban space signification practices, and H. Lefebvre’s theory of urban space production.

City festivals: creativity and control in staged urban experiences

In a global market, cities aim to develop a distinct profile to attract mobile consumers. One means increasingly used to attain distinction is to brand the city as experience space. In particular, the urban festival has become a popular organizational form for creating experience spaces and for marketing cities. Festivals are often strategically conceived with the purpose of promoting a ‘distinctive city’, in line with uniqueness being the keystone of success in the experience economy. This paper applies an experience economy framework to analyse city festivals as potentially transformative practices, helping re-imagine urban space and reshape urban identity. Building on empirical studies of the Stockholm Culture Festival and the Nowy Kercelak Fair in Warsaw, it examines the tension between controlled image production and carnivalesque celebration and the extent to which the meanings and flow of urban space can be managed. Using Lefèbvre’s notion of the production of space and Deleuze and Guattari’s concepts of de-territorialization and re-territorialization, this paper critically assesses the possibility of reshaping urban practices through the staging of festivals, and the potential for creativity and expression extant in managed staging of experience.

지각된 환경단서가 축제 만족과 행동의도에 미치는 영향 - 2008 광주충장축제를 중심으로 -

본 연구는 도시축제인 2008광주충장축제를 대상으로 지각된 환경단서 중 어떠한 요인들이 방문객의 만족과 행동의도에 영향을 미치는지 알아보고 자 한다. 설문조사는 축제기간중인 2008년 10월 7일부터 10월 12일의 기간 중에 도시축제인 2008광주 충장 축제를 마친 방문객 300명을 대상으로 실시하였다. 300부전부 회수 되었으나 불성실한 설문지를 제외한 270부를 분석에 이용하였다. 수집된 자료의 통계적 처리는 데이터 코딩(Data Coding)과정을 거쳐, SPSS 12.0 for Windows를 활용하여 빈도분석, 신뢰도분석, 요인분석, 다중회귀분석을 실시하였다. 연구결과 첫째, 도시축제 환경단서 요인이 만족도의 3가지 차원에 따라 다르게 나타났다. 즉 축제만족에는 '음식요인',이 중요한 영향 요인으로 나타났다. 둘째, 도시축제 환경단서 요인이 만족의 후속변수인 행동의도인 재방문의도에는 '편의시설요인' '접근성과 홍보요인',이 추천의도에는 '홍보안내요인'이 중요한 영향요인으로 나타났다. 반면에 '음식요인',은 유의한 영향을 미치지 않는 것으로 나타났다. 셋째, 축제만족이 행동의도인 재방문의도와추천의도에 미치는 영향에 대한 분석결과 축제만족이 중요한 영향요인으로 나타났다. 본 연구는 2008광주충장축제에 대한 발전전략 제시를 연구 목적으로 삼고자 한다. 도시축제를 추진하는 시점에 시기적절한 연구라고 사료되며 연구의 시사점은 발전방향추진에 있어 많은 도움이 되리라 판단된다. This study aims to understand what aspects among perceived environmental cues affect on satisfaction and behavior intention of visitors with the object of Gwangju Chungjang Festival 2008, which is a city festival. The survey was performed in the festival period, from October 7 through, 12 2008 with 300 visitors who finished the touring of the Festival. All the 300 questionnaires were returned, but only 270 out of 300 were used, except for the unfaithful responses, for the analysis. For statistical process of the collected data, frequency analysis, reliability analysis, factor analysis and multiple regression were performed by using SPSS 12.0 for Windows via the process of data coding. As the result, first, the factor, environmental cues of city festival were shown differently in three dimensions of satisfaction. In other words, 'food factor' is an important factor for festival satisfaction. Second, for re-visit intention, which is the consequence variable and behavior intention of satisfaction regarding the environmental cue factor, 'convenient facility factor' and 'accessibility and promotion factor' were significant and 'promotion and guidance factor' for the recommendation factor was significant. On the contrary, 'food factor' did not have significant impact. Third and finally, as the analysis result of impact of festival satisfaction on re-visit intention and recommendation intention, which are the behavior intentions, festival satisfaction was significant. This study aims suggestion of development strategies for Gwangju Chungjang Festival 2008. It is appropriate time for this study at the point of promoting city festivals. Also, suggestions in this study can help promotion of development direction.

Honorary Shares of Sacrificial Meat in Attic Vase Painting: Visual Signs of Distinction and Civic Identity

A group of Attic black- and red-figure vases from the late 6th and 5th centuries B.C. is decorated with scenes that prominently feature legs of meat in iconographic contexts other than sacrificial butchering. These leg joints are interpreted as honorary shares of sacrificial meat awarded to select individuals at the festivals of the polis; the honorary shares included more meat than the shares distributed to the general public. Because leg joints were awarded as honorary shares to the priests who officiated at sacrifices, they came to represent honorary shares in general. By extension, the leg joints that appear in painted scenes symbolize meritorious participation in city festivals, and thus can be viewed as expressions of civic identity.