Citrus Roots Research Articles

Huanglongbing, a Systemic Disease, Restructures the Bacterial Community Associated with Citrus Roots

To examine the effect of pathogens on the diversity and structure of plant-associated bacterial communities, we carried out a molecular analysis using citrus and huanglongbing as a host-disease model. 16S rRNA gene clone library analysis of citrus roots revealed shifts in microbial diversity in response to pathogen infection. The clone library of the uninfected root samples has a majority of phylotypes showing similarity to well-known plant growth-promoting bacteria, including Caulobacter, Burkholderia, Lysobacter, Pantoea, Pseudomonas, Stenotrophomonas, Bacillus, and Paenibacillus. Infection by "Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus" restructured the native microbial community associated with citrus roots and led to the loss of detection of most phylotypes while promoting the growth of bacteria such as Methylobacterium and Sphingobacterium. In pairwise comparisons, the clone library from uninfected roots contained significantly higher 16S rRNA gene diversity, as reflected in the higher Chao 1 richness estimation (P </= 0.01) of 237.13 versus 42.14 for the uninfected and infected clone libraries, respectively. Similarly, the Shannon index of the uninfected clone library (4.46) was significantly higher than that of the infected clone library (2.61). Comparison of the uninfected clone library with the infected clone library using LIBSHUFF statistics showed a significant difference (P </= 0.05). Quantitative PCR analysis revealed that the bacterial community changes not only qualitatively but also quantitatively. The relative proportions of different groups of bacteria changed significantly after infection with the pathogen. These data indicate that infection of citrus by "Ca. Liberibacter asiaticus" has a profound effect on the structure and composition of the bacterial community associated with citrus roots.

Subterranean Herbivore-induced Volatiles Released by Citrus Roots upon Feeding by Diaprepes abbreviatus Recruit Entomopathogenic Nematodes

Herbivore-induced volatile emissions benefit plant hosts by recruiting natural enemies of herbivorous insects. Such tritrophic interactions have been examined thoroughly in the above-ground terrestrial environment. Recently, similar signals have also been described in the subterranean environment, which may be of equal importance for indirect plant defense. The larvae of the root weevil, Diaprepes abbreviates, are a serious pest of citrus. Infestations can be controlled by the use of entomopathogenic nematodes, yet the interactions between the plant, insect and nematode are poorly understood and remain unpredictable. In bioassays that used a root zone six-arm olfactometer, citrus roots ('Swingle citrumelo' rootstock) recruited significantly more entomopathogenic nematodes (Steinernema diaprepesi) when infested with root weevil larvae than non-infested roots. Infested plants were more attractive to nematodes than larvae alone. Roots damaged by weevil larvae attracted more nematodes than mechanically damaged roots and sand controls. By dynamic in situ collection and GC-MS analysis of volatiles from soil, we determined that four major terpene compounds were produced by infested plant roots that were not found in samples from non-infested roots or soil that contained only larvae. Solvent extracts of weevil-infested roots attracted more nematodes than extracts of non-infested roots in a two choice sand-column bioassay. These findings suggest that Swingle citrus roots release induced volatiles as an indirect defense in response to herbivore feeding, and that some of these induced volatiles function as attractants for entomopathogenic nematodes.

Keeping Water and Nutrients in the Florida Citrus Tree Root Zone

Florida citrus (Citrus spp.) producers must improve water and nutrient use efficiency to remain sustainable as they face increasing urbanization, plant disease, and environmental awareness. Producers have traditionally used water-soluble nitrogen (N) and phosphorus fertilizer sources with calendar-based irrigation, but they are slowly integrating enhanced efficiency fertilizers into nutrient management plans and converting to sensor or evapotranspiration-based irrigation scheduling. Recent research has improved the understanding of the citrus grove N budget, which has led to development of appropriate best management practices (BMPs) that will maintain production while protecting the environment. BMPs that have been shown to decrease N loss to groundwater include applying the appropriate fertilizer rate, splitting fertilizer applications, converting to fertigation, and improving irrigation scheduling.

A Modified Method to Visualize Infection Sites of Spores of the Entomopathogen Beauveria bassiana (Deuteromycotina: Hyphomycetes) on the Exoskeleton of Citrus Root Weevil Diaprepes abbreviatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Adults

Beauveria bassiana is a widespread entomopathogen which is infectious to a great variety of insects. A commercial preparation of this fungus was used to study its potential as a biocontrol agent of the citrus root weevil, Diaprepes abbreviatus. Laboratory reared adult weevils were placed in clean plastic bags with 0.05 g of powdered inoculum per bag, shaken for thirty seconds, and placed in holding cages. In order to determine the spore concentration, germination, and position of ingress, inoculated weevils were dipped in a collodion solution after 30 min, 6 h, 12 h, 18 h, and 30 h. Collodion peels from various areas of the exoskeleton were removed, stained with lactophenol cotton blue, and observed microscopically. At 12 h post-inoculation, spores began to swell, and at 18 h close to 25% germinated on all body parts except on the elytra. After 30 h, between 45% and 75% of the spores germinated, depending on the body part. Most active spore germination occurred around the eyes (75%), followed by the ventral abdomen (65%), the dorsal pronotum (60%), scales (45%), and dorsal surface of the elytra (7%). Spores were washed from the surface of inoculated weevils with distilled water and plating onto potato dextrose agar. Spore density on the weevils' surface was determined to be 15,815 ± 479 spores initially after inoculation, and was reduced to 5,782 ± 136 spores after 3 h.

Identification and characterization of 27 conserved microRNAs in citrus

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of non-protein-coding small RNAs. Considering the conservation of many miRNA genes in different plant genomes, the identification of miRNAs from non-model organisms is both practicable and instrumental in addressing miRNA-guided gene regulation. Citrus is an important staple fruit tree, and publicly available expressed sequence tag (EST) database for citrus are increasing. However, until now, little has been known about miRNA in citrus. In this study, 27 known miRNAs from Arabidopsis were searched against citrus EST databases for miRNA precursors, of which 13 searched precursor sequences could form fold-back structures similar with those of Arabidopsis. The ubiquitous expression of those 13 citrus microRNAs and other 13 potential citrus miRNAs could be detected in citrus leaf, young shoot, flower, fruit and root by northern blotting, and some of them showed differential expression in different tissues. Based on the fact that miRNAs exhibit perfect or nearly perfect complementarity with their target sequences, a total of 41 potential targets were identified for 15 citrus miRNAs. The majority of the targets are transcription factors that play important roles in citrus development, including leaf, shoot, and root development. Additionally, some other target genes appear to play roles in diverse physiological processes. Four target genes have been experimentally verified by detection of the miRNA-mediated mRNA cleavage in Poncirus trifoliate. Overall, this study in the identification and characterization of miRNAs in citrus can initiate further study on citrus miRNA regulation mechanisms, and it can help us to know more about the important roles of miRNAs in citrus.

Determination of the Presence of Huanglongbing in Seeds and Movement of the Pathogen in Citrus reticulata

Problem statement: Huanglongbing (HLB) also known as citrus greening disease is a fastidious phloem-inhabiting bacterium in the genus Candidatus Liberibacter. Using universal primers, the 16S ribosomal DNA sequence of three strains of the bacterium were obtained by PCR. However there is very little information on seed transmission and HLB pathogen movement to find a way for control or reduce the severity of HLB on the field. The study was conducted to detect HLB pathogen in seeds of Citrus, to determine pathogen movement in citrus seedling after infection and to detect the HLB pathogen in citrus roots. Approach: Seeds of Citrus reticulata cv. Limau Madu were collected from infected orchard and were germinated in screenhouse condition. The seeds of Citrus reticlata cv. L. Madu were planted in screenhouse too for HLB pathogen movement and HLB detection in roots. The seedlings were inoculated using infected grafting methods. Results: HLB was not amplified in new seedlings after germination. HLB moved slowly reaching up to 1.5 cm after 2 weeks, 1.5-4.5 cm after eight weeks and detected on 4.5-9 cm after 14 weeks below the grafting area. HLB was also detected up to 9-15 cm after 16 weeks, 15-24 cm after twenty weeks, 24-28.5 cm after 22 weeks and 28.5-30 cm after 24 weeks below the grafting area. Conclusion: Base on conventional PCR test, HLB disease in citrus is not seed borne and it can reach to the roots 26 weeks after inoculation.

Flutuação populacional de curculionídeos-das-raízes em citros

O objetivo neste trabalho foi estudar a flutuação populacional de curculionídeos-das-raízes em citros. Foram feitas amostragens quinzenais das fases de larva, de pupa e adulta, em laranjeiras de quatro fazendas, em Itapetininga, São Paulo, de março de 2000 a fevereiro de 2002. A emergência dos adultos foi quantificada em gaiolas sob a copa das plantas e a população de adultos, na copa das plantas, com pano-de-batida; as larvas e pupas em trincheiras abertas no solo, sob a copa das plantas. Com base na flutuação populacional das fases, é possível afirmar que os insetos são univoltinos. A maioria dos adultos emergiu de outubro a abril, com picos no início do período. Foram encontradas as espécies Parapantomorus fluctuosus (Boheman), Naupactus cervinus Boheman e Naupactus versatilis Hustache, sendo as duas últimas as mais freqüentes, embora com picos em épocas diferentes. Ocorreram larvas praticamente o ano inteiro, com picos populacionais no período de junho a janeiro. A população de curculionídeos foi menor no segundo ano de estudo, provavelmente em conseqüência da estiagem. Dentre as fases estudadas, os adultos e as larvas, amostrados com pano-de-batida e em trincheiras no solo, podem servir para detecção, quantificação e previsão da ocorrência dos curculionídeos-das-raízes dos citros.

Discovery and characterization of chemical signals for citrus root weevil, Diaprepes abbreviatus

The tropical root weevil Diaprepes abbreviatus (L. 1758) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is a polyphagous insect from the Caribbean Islands and an invasive insect in the southern part of the United States where it is pest of citrus crops and ornamental trees. Adults feed upon foliage where aggregation, mating and oviposition take place. Here, the headspace volatiles from Citrus macrophylla Wester (Rutaceae), D. abbreviatus adults feeding on this plant, adults alone and adult feces, were collected by aeration and solid-phase microextraction (SPME) for analysis by gas chromatography-linked mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Electrophysiological responses of weevil antennal receptors to volatile headspace extracts and synthetic analogues were recorded by gas chromatography-linked electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD) and electroantennograms (EAGs). Antennal responses were recorded to the monoterpenes (R)-(−)-linalool, citronellal, nerol, citral, and geraniol; all present in the headspace of C. macrophylla. Antennal responses were also recorded to carvacrol, present in the headspace of adults and adult feces. The green leaf volatiles cis-3-hexen-1-ol and trans-2-hexen-1-ol, produced by other host plants, elicited reliable responses on the D. abbreviatus antenna. When comparing EAGs between (±)-linalool and (R)-(−)-linalool, no significant difference was found; responses to (R)-(+)-citronellal were larger than for (S)-(−)-citronellal. Among the individual compounds and blends tested using an open T-track dual choice olfactometer, only the blend of (±)-linalool, cis-3-hexen-1-ol and carvacrol (source dose 25:25:2.5 μg) elicited significant attraction of females, the same blend was repellent for males. The biologically active compounds found here likely play a role in host finding by D. abbreviatus and other interactions of the insect with its hostplant.

Molecular Identification of the Economically Important Invasive Citrus Root WeevilDiaprepes abbreviatus(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

The article reports on the study that identifies the economical importance of citrus root weevil Diaprepes abbreviatus (D. abbreviatus). It develops a sensitive barcoding technique based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-amplification and sequencing of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (COI) gene to use in identification of eggs, larvae and adults of the citrus root weevil, D. abbreviatus. It shows that the molecular tool provides accurate species identification for management and quarantine decisions of the pest.

ASSOCIATION OF FUSARIUM SOLANI WITH ROLABC AND WILD TYPE TROYER CITRANGE

SUMMARY To determine if rolABC genes of Agrobacterium rhizogenes could modify the susceptibility of Troyer citrange to dry root rot, conidial suspensions of a Fusarium solani strain isolated from citrus roots (PVCT1A) were used in cutting, leaf midrib and root inoculation assays of wild type (wt) and rolABC Troyer citrange. In all assays, the pathogen was reisolated equally well from wt and transformant. Interveinal chlorosis, wilt and defoliation of inoculated cuttings and leaf midribs, observed both in rolABC and wt, were more severe in transgenic lines. Two months after root inoculation with the pathogen, root weight was significantly reduced in transgenic lines. No root rot symptoms were observed on rolABC or wt lines, but wilting was more severe on wt. Cell-free fungal culture filtrate induced leaf wilt and defoliation within 10 days from immersion in the filtrate, without any significant difference between rolABC and wt lines. Scanning electron microscopy observations of infected roots showed that fungal penetration and colonization was similar in both lines. Evidence is presented that F. solani colonizes Troyer citrange tissues even in absence of visible symptoms and without differences between wt and rolABC lines.

Long term fertilization effects on ‘Rio Red’ grapefruit yield and shape on a heavy textured calcareous soil

Fertilizer recommendations for citrus production on heavier textured, calcareous soils increase with the age of the tree up to 168 kg N ha −1 year −1 from a soluble source in one or two applications. Such practices may be inefficient and could cause detrimental effects on fruit quality. A variety of fertilization practices are used in South Texas, and additional evaluation is needed. Rates and sources of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and a commercial program consisting of both a soil component containing organic acids and a foliar component were evaluated on grapefruit production for 6 years. Increasing rate of N application increased leaf nutrient concentration, grapefruit yield, and affected fruit shape as indicated by a decrease in the equatorial:polar diameter (E:P) ratio. Since the response to increasing N application by the E:P ratio was linear while grapefruit yield was quadratic, high N application has a negative effect on fruit shape beyond the level of increasing total yield. Phosphorus application had no effect on any parameter measured, even though soil testing indicated soil P levels were below those at which a P response would be expected. Comparisons between granular 21-0-0 applied broadcast and liquid N-32 injected in a band in the soil at the drip line showed an increase in the number of fruit per tree, but no differences in yield. The ‘Actagro’ program greatly improved available soil P levels and increased the juice brix:acidity ratio, but did not affect grapefruit yield. Phosphorus availability may therefore be a factor in improving grapefruit juice quality. The soil profile within the citrus root zone was found to contain large amounts of inorganic N, but availability of this residual N was limited since yield responses occurred at the N application rates applied in this study. The amount of N contained in the fruit harvested was a small fraction, roughly 5–10%, of the residual amount in the soil. While N uptake in the fruit increased with N fertilizer application, the increase in N taken up relative to the amount applied averaged 42%.

Egg Parasitoids of Citrus Weevils in Guadeloupe

Egg Parasitoids of Citrus Weevils in Guadeloupe

Water Balance Components in a Mature Citrus Orchard

The low water‐holding capacity of sandy soils, together with spatial and temporal variations of rainfall, require Florida citrus trees to be irrigated for optimal production. Citrus tree root systems are exposed to various hydrologic conditions because of soil temperature and water gradients due to tree canopy shading and under‐tree microirrigation. The main goal of this study was to evaluate water balance components in a mature citrus orchard grown on central Florida ridge soils with special interest in quantifying rainfall interception by a citrus canopy and its effect on effective rainfall estimation. Soil water content was monitored every 30 min at 10‐, 20‐, 40‐, and 80‐cm depths in the root zone both under and outside of citrus tree canopies. Microirrigation, rainfall, and weather data were used to calculate effective rainfall, plant water uptake, and deep drainage. We found that the tree canopy intercepted 35 and 50% of the incoming high (≥5‐mm) and low (&lt;5‐mm) intensity rainfalls, respectively. Effective rainfall calculated without accounting for the canopy interception effect was overestimated by about 30 and 5% for the dry and wet periods, respectively. Citrus crop evapotranspiration was higher under the tree canopy (irrigated area) than outside the tree canopy (unirrigated area) during the dry season because of supplemental irrigation.

Distribuição do sistema radicular de citros em uma toposseqüência de solos de tabuleiro costeiro do Estado da Bahia

O aprofundamento do sistema radicular dos citros é importante para aumentar a produtividade e a longevidade dessa cultura, principalmente em solos que apresentam horizontes coesos subsuperficiais. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a distribuição das raízes da laranjeira 'Hamlin' enxertada em limoeiro 'Cravo', com 15 anos de idade, em uma toposseqüência de tabuleiro de Sapeaçu-BA, composta por Latossolo Amarelo argissólico (LAx) e Argissolo Amarelo (PAx), ambos coesos, e Argissolo Acinzentado (PAC), não coeso. Em 2001, retiraram-se amostras de raízes em uma planta no LAx e no PAx e em duas no PAC, em quatro horizontes, em quatro pontos na linha e em cinco na entrelinha, distanciados por 0,50 m, usando-se um cilindro de aço de 1,20 m de comprimento e 0,085 m de diâmetro. As raízes foram digitalizadas em escaner e processadas no aplicativo GSRoot. As raízes da laranjeira 'Hamlin' enxertada em limoeiro 'Cravo' apresentaram grande sensibilidade à coesão, sendo a densidade de raízes 3,4 a 4,1 vezes maior no solo PAC, não coeso. A densidade das raízes encontradas nos horizontes superficiais do LAx e do PAx foi próxima daquela do horizonte mais profundo do PAC. A profundidade efetiva do sistema radicular, até onde se encontraram 80 % das raízes, foi maior no PAC não coeso, e a distância efetiva do sistema radicular, até onde se encontraram 80 % das raízes a partir do tronco, foi maior no PAx coeso, que foi o solo que apresentou a menor profundidade efetiva das raízes. Nos três solos, houve predominância de raízes com diâmetros &lt; 1 mm, seguidas daquelas com diâmetros entre 1 e 2 e &gt; 2 mm.

EFFICIENCY OF INSECTICIDES IN LARVAE AND ADULTS CONTROL OF CITRUS ROOT WEEVILS EFICIÊNCIA DE INSETICIDAS NO CONTROLE DE LARVAS E ADULTOS DE CURCULIONÍDEOS-DAS-RAÍZES EM CITROS

The control of larvae and adults of citrus root weevils (Naupactus spp.) was evaluated in four experiments, in field and laboratory conditions, at Itapetininga, Sao Paulo State, Brazil. For larvae control of Naupactus spp. the insecticides tested were: aldicarb, bifenthrin, carbofuran, carbosulfan, chlorpyrifos (GR), chlorpyrifos (EW), fipronil, imidacloprid, and thiamethoxam (GR). For adults control of Naupactus cervinus and N. versatilis the following products were tested: abamectin, carbosulfan. lufenuron, lufenuron + abamectin, and thiamethoxam (WG). The efficiency control of Naupactus spp. larvae was below 80%, for all treatments tested (insecticides, dosages, and application methods). On larvae, the best results were obtained with thiamethoxam (GR) 2.40 g, fipronil 0.19 g, and thiamethoxam (WG) 1.00 g of a.i.plant-1, with 71.43%, 74.12% and 77.87% larvae population reduction, respectively. For N. cervinus and N. versatilis adults control, thiamethoxam (WG) with 0.75 g and 1.00 g, and carbosulfan with 0.64 g of a.i. planta-1 showed efficiency above 80% in the field tests. While in the laboratory test, besides these treatments, also tiamethoxam (WG) with 0.5 g of a.i. plant-1 presented such efficiency. The adult mortality was similar between the studied species. Thiamethoxam (WG) and carbosulfan may be reccommended for adults of this insect. KEY-WORDS: Insect pest; Naupactini; chemical control.

Detection of Phytophthora nicotianae and P. palmivora in citrus roots using PCR-RFLP in comparison with other methods

Phytophthora nicotianae and P. palmivora are the most important soil-borne pathogens of citrus in Florida. These two species were detected and identified in singly and doubly infected plants using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) of internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of ribosomal DNA. The sensitivity of the PCR-RFLP was analyzed and the usefulness of the method evaluated as an alternative or supplement to serological methods and recovery on semi-selective medium. In a semi-nested PCR with universal primers ITS4 and ITS6, the detection limit was 1 fg of fungal DNA, which made it 1000× more sensitive than a single-step PCR with primers ITS4 and DC6. The sensitivity of detection for P. nicotianae was shown to be ten-fold lower than for P. palmivora, limiting its detection with restriction profiles in plants infected by both fungal species. Phytophthora nicotianae was detected with species-specific primers in all samples inoculated with this species despite the absence of species-specific patterns in RFLP. In contrast, the incidence of detection of P. palmivora in the presence of P. nicotianae was considerably lower using plating and morphological detection methods. Due to its high sensitivity, PCR amplification of ribosomal ITS regions is a valuable tool for detecting and identifying Phytophthora spp. in citrus roots, provided a thorough knowledge of reaction conditions for the target species is established prior to the interpretation of data.

Protection of Citrus Rootstocks Against Phytophthora spp. with a Hypovirulent Isolate of Phytophthora nicotianae

ABSTRACT Phytophthora root rot of citrus in Florida is caused by Phytophthora nicotianae and P. palmivora. A naturally occurring isolate of P. nicotianae (Pn117) was characterized as hypovirulent on citrus roots. Pn117 infected and colonized fibrous roots, but caused significantly less disease than the virulent isolates P. nicotianae Pn198 and P. palmivora Pp99. Coincident inoculation of rootstock seedlings of Cleopatra mandarin (Citrus reticulata) or Swingle citrumelo (C. paradisi x Poncirus trifoliata) with the hypovirulent Pn117 and the virulent isolates Pn198 and Pp99 did not reduce the severity of disease caused by the virulent Phytophthora spp. When either rootstock was inoculated with the hypovirulent Pn117 for 3 days prior to inoculation with virulent isolates, preinoculated seedlings had significantly less disease and greater root weight compared with seedlings inoculated with the virulent isolates alone. Recovery of the different colony types of Phytophthora spp. from roots of sweet orange (C. sinensis) or Swingle citrumelo was evaluated on semiselective medium after sequential inoculations with the hypovirulent Pn117 and virulent Pp99. Pn117 was isolated from roots at the same level as the Pp99 at 3 days post inoculation. Preinoculation of Pn117 for 3 days followed by inoculation with Pp99 resulted in greater recovery of the hypovirulent isolate and lower recovery of the virulent compared with coincident inoculation.

Aspectos biológicos da fase adulta dos curculionídeos-das-raízes dos citros

O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar alguns parâmetros biológicos da fase adulta de duas espécies de curculionídeos-das-raízes dos citros. Os insetos foram coletados em citros em Itapetininga, SP, levados ao Laboratório de Biologia de Insetos da ESALQ/USP, em Piracicaba, SP, onde foram mantidas as espécies Naupactus cervinus Boheman e Naupactus versatilis Hustache. Foi avaliada a longevidade, o tempo de alimentação, o período de pré-oviposição, a oviposição, o número de posturas e de ovos, além do consumo de folhas de citros. As espécies de curculionídeos-das-raízes dos citros apresentaram diferenças nas características biológicas e no potencial de danificar os citros. N. versatilis é potencialmente mais prejudicial aos citros, pois coloca um número maior de ovos (214,6 x 120,9 ovos), apresenta maior longevidade (30,9 x 25,2 dias) e consome maior área foliar (31,0 x 15,0cm²).

Aspectos biológicos do período embrionário dos curculionídeos-das-raízes dos citros

The goal of this work was to study some characteristics of the egg phase of three species of citrus root weevils. The insects were collected from citrus plants in Itapetininga, SP, and brought to the Laboratório de Biologia de Insetos of ESALQ/USP, in Piracicaba, SP, where the species Naupactus cervinus (Boheman), Naupactus versatilis (Hustache) and Parapantomorus fluctuosus (Boheman) were kept. Duration and viability of the egg phase were evaluated, and the lower temperature threshold and thermal constant (K) were calculated for these species. The species of citrus root weevils showed different duration of egg phases. The egg phase ranged from 40.4 to 13.8 N. cervinus, from 38.7 to 20.0 days for N. versatilis, and from 35.0 to 13.8 days for P. fluctuosus, depending upon temperature. The temperature thresholds of this stage were 8.1, 8.3, and 9.9 masculineC at thermal constant was 385.7, 397.7 and 294.1 degree-days, for N. cervinus, N. versatilis and P. fluctuosus respectively. The duration of the egg phases of N. cervinus and N. versatilis were similar at the same temperatures and P. fluctuosus had a faster development than Naupactus spp. in all temperatures tested.

Effect of Surfactant on Leaching of Pendimethalin in Florida Candler Fine Sand

Herbicides are an essential part of modern horticultural and agricultural production systems. For long-term weed control, application of preemergence herbicides is made directly to the soil that is a common medium for growth of crop plants and weeds. Also, when herbicides are applied postemergence, some of the herbicide drifts away from the foliage onto the soil. In light, sandy soils, high precipitation can further increase the chances of herbicide leaching into subsoil profiles, especially if the herbicides are poorly adsorbed, for example, atrazine and simazine (Hall et al., 1989) . Groundwater contamination caused by herbicide leaching is a concern in major agricultural regions of the world (Hallberg, 1988) . Most herbicides are applied at much higher rates than recommended to offset losses that occur from their site of action in the plant root zone. Preemergence herbicides for weed management in citrus require soil incorporation, either by irrigation or rainfall into the zone of weed seed germination (the top several inches of soil). Soil incorporation is essential for the area under the canopy of citrus trees since mechanical incorporation may potentially damage citrus roots and low volume irrigation lines. Additionally, it is difficult to achieve complete and even distribution of the herbicide by mechanical means under the canopy. In the absence of soil incorporation, herbicide effectiveness is reduced because of volatilization and photodecomposition (Jain and Singh, 1992). Herbicide leaching is influenced by several factors, including adsorption of herbicides to soil colloids and soil type (Alva and Singh, 1990), uniformity of water flow (Boesten, 1987), water solubility of herbicides, and physicochemical and biological characteristics (soil pH, soil colloids, bulk density, and pore distribution) (Anderson, 1996). When a pesticide enters the soil, some of it will stick to soil particles, particularly organic matter, through a process called sorption. As more water enters the soil through rainfall or irrigation, the pesticide molecules will move down and may enter soil-water through a process called desorption (Hornsby, 1999). For strongly adsorbed herbicides, soil organic matter content is generally the most important factor—the higher the organic content the less leaching. Leaching of weakly adsorbed acidic herbicides, for example, sulfonylureas and imidazolinones, is much greater in high pH soils (Brown and Kearney, 1991) . One of the most useful indices for quantifying pesticide sorption on soils is the partition coefficient (PC), which is defined as the ratio of pesticide concentration bound to soil organic matter particles to concentration that is dissolved in the soil-water. Thus, pesticides with small PC values are more likely to be leached than those with large PC values (Hornsby, 1999). Beyond the nature of the soil and the amount of water that percolates through it, the extent of leaching also depends on the herbicide properties (Weber, 1972, 1987). More than 12 different pesticides have been detected in the groundwater of at least 24 states in the USA as a result of routine agricultural use (Hallberg, 1986). Approximately 344,000 ha of citrus are cultivated in Florida, which contributes significantly to the state’s agricultural revenue (Anonymous, 1996). Florida’s climate allows weeds to grow year-round (Singh and Tan, 1992), and efficient control is only achieved by herbicide use that often requires repeated applications (Muraro and Oswalt, 1996). Herbicide leaching may result in damage to citrus S. D. Sharma (&) M. Singh Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, 700 Experiment Station Road, Lake Alfred, FL 33850, USA e-mail: shiv901@ufl.edu