South Asian Cities Research Articles

Wavelet coherence analysis of PM2.5 variability in response to meteorological changes in South Asian cities

Assessment of trends and variability of atmospheric particles can help set the target for pollution reduction, robust air-pollution and climate change policy decision-making, and clean air. This study investigated the recent trends and variability of Particulate Matter 2.5 (PM2.5) concentrations led by meteorological factors in fifteen major South Asian cities. It comprehensively assessed the influence of climatic factors through multiple statistical and time-frequency models. Trends were identified using the Mann-Kendal Test and innovative trend analysis methods. This study found the most critical air quality condition in Lahore (105.43 μg/m3), safe condition in Ho Chi Minh City (25.97 μg/m3), and most of the cities experience unhealthy to very unhealthy air conditions during winter. PM2.5 levels exhibited ascending trends in Dhaka, Jakarta, Lahore, Karachi, and Islamabad, while descending trends in Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Chennai, Kathmandu, Rangoon, Hanoi, Vientiane, and Ho Chi Minh City. Statistical models such as linear regression, Pearson's correlation, and Spearman rank correlation were applied to determine the influence of temperature, rainfall, humidity, and windspeed on PM2.5 concentrations. Despite the differences in climate conditions, PM2.5 concentrations were most sensitive to humidity, followed by temperature, rainfall, and windspeed across most cities. Most cities showed a negative relationship between PM2.5 and meteorological factors. Bi-wavelet coherence (WC) analyses were performed to investigate how the frequency components of PM2.5 and meteorological factors relate to each other over time. This WC analysis showed a high correlation with phase and antiphase correlations and demonstrated that all meteorological factors have influenced PM2.5 concentrations over time.

What happens next? Exploring women's transport motility through the story completion method

This paper explores the three elements of motility (access, competence, appropriation) through women's perceptions of travel using the metro rail in Delhi, India. Studies on metro rails are a recent phenomenon in developing countries where this is a relatively new transport mode. The concept of motility to explore gendered use of metro is useful in context of this South Asian city where women's movements (potential and actual) are contingent upon their ability to travel safely.Data was collected using story completion methods. Participants were asked to complete an online semi-structured form that presented five fictional story stems/openings. Data in this paper is based on stories finished by 84 female participants across Delhi with varying demographic profiles. This paper advances qualitative research on women's mobility and transport use by highlighting situation-specific metro access; necessary skills to optimize access; and how women actually use the metro system.Feelings of un/safety related to fear of sexual harassment, getting lost, and risk of contracting diseases in unhygienic conditions results in specific access of the metro to feel safe. Diverse skills to manage the access include: coping (e.g., adapting to delay in services), performative (e.g., mannerisms to feel safe from threat of violence), spatial (e.g., location of coach), cultural (e.g., awareness of norms), and sanitary skills (e.g., bodily modifications to feel safe from unhygienic conditions). Based on travel priorities and past mobility experiences (personal/shared), the skills and access shape how women travel and what they decide to do to travel safely.This paper advocates for gender inclusive guidelines and collecting disaggregate data in transport, especially for newer metro systems being planned or constructed. It presents an opportunity to consider the barriers to women's potential mobility; how/where transport systems can play a part; and the use of qualitative research methods to appreciate the diversity of women's travel experiences across different segments of their journeys.

A systematic literature review of mobility attitudes and mode choices: MENA and South Asian cities

Urban mobility behavior is influenced by complex interrelations of personal attitudes, neighborhood design, emerging digitalized shared mobility services, and urban governance. The transformation of urban mobility ecosystems in the Middle East and North African (MENA) and the South Asian (SA) regions lacks an in-depth comparative review to understand the determinants of mobility attitudes and mode choices. The objective of this paper is to systematically study the existing literature on cities in the MENA and SA regions to provide a comparative review of the analyses and the findings on urban mobility attitudes in light of prevailing societal conditions and urban-spatial forms. A systematic methodology was deployed to shortlist recently published journal papers from the years 2000 to 2022 for the MENA and SA regions. Application of the (shortlisting) methodology has identified 43 studies from the MENA region and 43 papers from the SA region to be most suitable for the review of comparative analysis of urban mobility behavior. The review found that travel choices in both MENA and the SA regions are impacted by the usual determinants such as demography, socio-economic characteristics, vehicle ownership, and the quality and maturity of (urban transport) spatial forms. The mobility behavior in these regions, is to some extent, can be said to be in alignment with the observed behavior across the developed western cities elsewhere in Europe and North America. The review identified that in both the MENA and the SA regions, mobility choices are also influenced by certain additional factors, such as cultural norms, adverse climatic conditions and socio-economic standings, etc. The literature indicates that ethnic and income disparities are deeply embedded in the socio-spatial arrangements of the cities in the MENA and SA regions. Future research can assess the relative influence of these factors and to determine correlations between mobility attitudes and urban forms to build better cities.

Historical drought and its trend in South Asia: Spatial and temporal analysis 2000-2020

Every year, South Asian countries suffer from declining agricultural outputs due to climate extremes such as floods and droughts. Recurrent droughts have depressed rural economies and enhanced widespread hunger and human migration to South Asian cities (Miyan, 2015). Due to climatic changes, the region is projected to experience rising temperatures and more frequent extreme weather events in the long term (Trenberth et al., 2014). Accurate predictions of drought, its impact, and early detection facilities are not present in most South Asian countries due to a lack of sufficient hydro-meteorological datasets, poor access to satellite products, and shortages of well-trained staff. This study seeks to address these deficiencies scientifically by analysing historical drought conditions on a regional scale using open-access satellite products. The Drought Severity Index (DSI) has been employed to assess meteorological droughts from 2000 to 2020 and to prepare drought severity maps for the South Asian region. Results from DSI were further compared with the Standardised Precipitation Index (SPI) in Nepal and Bangladesh. The results identified pre-monsoon months as the driest period in South Asian countries experiencing severe to moderate drought.

Biomonitoring of heavy metals in the feathers of House crow (Corvus splendens) from some metropolitans of Asia and Africa.

Urban-dwelling birds can be useful biomonitors to assess the impact of the urbanisation on both public and wildlife health. Widely distributed urban bird species, the House crow, was studied for heavy metal accumulation levels from nine cities of South Asia, Southeast Asia and Africa that border the Indian Ocean. Feathers were spectroscopically investigated for the deposition of ten heavy metals, i.e. As, Zn, Pb, Cd, Ni, iron Fe, Mn, Cr, Cu and Li. Fe and Zn were found to be the most prevalent metals in all sites. Measured concentrations of Pb (4.38-14.77mgkg-1) overall, and Fe (935.66mgkg-1) and Cu (67.17mgkg-1) at some studied sites were above the toxicity levels reported lethal in avian toxicological studies. Multivariate analysis and linear models supported geographical location as a significant predictor for the level of most of the metals. Zn and Cu, generally and Pb, Cd, Mn, Cr at some sites exhibited potential bioaccumulation from surrounding environments. Inter-species comparisons strengthen the inference that the House crow is a reliable bioindicator species for the qualitative assessment of local urban environmental pollution and could be a useful tool for inter-regional monitoring programs.

Urban comics and social justice: restructuring neoliberal spaces of Delhi in Sarnath Banerjee’s all quiet in Vikaspuri

ABSTRACT The present paper seeks to focus on one of the prominent aspects of South Asian comics; the nature of urbanity, through a study of Sarnath Banerjee’s All Quiet in Vikaspuri, a narrative primarily set in Delhi. Banerjee’s Delhi is the space of the capitalists, urban planners, and corrupt policies; in short a ‘social product’, as Henri Lefebvre had formulated. The paper will examine how Delhi, in Banerjee’s comics, is symptomatic of various states of discriminatory infrastructural development, failure and violence endemic to the system, as in many other emerging South Asian cities. It will further investigate the dynamics of uneven development and urban inequality of Delhi to argue the emergence of new socio-spatial and economic trajectories in post-liberalisation India. The paper seeks to argue that through the multiple references to pulp fictions, mythic and hybrid spaces, Banerjee maps the nuanced changes in urban lifestyle and the more liberal shift towards exclusionary spatial practices such as ‘short-termism’, but also present alternative histories and regional resistance of the lived space that go against the planned space of the city. Finally, the paper will borrow insights from theorists such as Sanjay Srivastava, Ananya Roy, David Harvey, and others to argue how social and spatial justice can be achieved through urban comics that, according to Dominic Davies, helps to restructure ‘more socially and spatially just cities’.

Beyond colonial urbanism: state power, global connections and fragmented land regimes in twentieth-century Hyderabad city

AbstractUrban histories of modern South Asia have centred on British Indian cities and the reign of colonial urbanism, with dependence on metropolitan imperatives and models regarded as givens. Focusing on Hyderabad, one of the subcontinent's five largest cities and capital of an autonomous princely state throughout the colonial era, this article establishes the analytical utility of princely urbanism as a framework for writing the history of South Asian cities. Characterized by state-directed planning, transnational urbanist networks and multiple overlapping property regimes, this mode of city development and its resonance points to hidden genealogies of modern urbanism.

Drawing the “color line”: Race, ethnicity and religion in Diu

ABSTRACT This article explores how the ideas of race, ethnicity and religion shifted with modernity in Diu. While it concentrates on findings about Diu, the arguments it develops are more wide-ranging and have a series of architectural, urbanistic, and anthropological implications. It addresses the construction of identity by exploring the multiplicities and slippages of colonial imagery, social histories, and spatial production in the management of populations and colonial cities. We argue that the Portuguese shared ideologies rooted in race, ethnicity and religion that provide a consistent, detectable structure for a specific interpretation of spatial-morphological arrangements in Diu (the city’s buildings, architecture, urban layout, and spatial structure) in the context of the European colonial city in South Asia. We analyze the discourse with which the Portuguese created knowledge through cartography, tracing how ideologies linked to race, ethnicity and religion were historically internalized, and how they worked in conjunction with social structures and practices to produce the colonial city of Diu.

Water Security in South Asian Cities: A Review of Challenges and Opportunities

Achieving water security in South Asian cities will require a realistic and holistic understanding of the challenges that are growing in extent and severity. These challenges include the rapid rise in urban household water demand due to both overall population growth and increasing urbanization rate. Additionally, surface water supply in closed river basins is fully utilized, and there is little opportunity in these regions to increase the extraction of surface water to meet rising demands. Furthermore, groundwater extraction in most regions exceeds natural recharge rates, leading to rapidly falling annual water tables and seasonal depletion in hard rock regions and to gradually declining water tables requiring deeper wells and increased pumping effort in alluvial regions. Additionally, even in cities with abundant water resources, poorer segments of the population often face economic water scarcity and lack the means to access it. Nevertheless, there are important potential engineering opportunities for achieving water security in South Asian cities. Much withdrawn water is lost due to urban water distribution inefficiency, and a range of proven techniques exist to improve distribution. Metering of urban water can lead to structural improvements of management and billing, though the water needs of the poorest city residents must be ensured. Industrial water-use efficiency can be significantly improved in manufacturing and electricity generation. The quantities of wastewater generated in South Asia are large, thus treating and reusing this water for other purposes is a strong lever in enhancing local water security. There is limited potential for rooftop rainwater harvesting and storage, though capture-enhanced groundwater recharge can be important in some areas. Some individual inter-basin transfer projects may prove worthwhile, but very-large-scale projects are unlikely to contribute practically to urban water security. Overall, the water challenges facing South Asian cities are complex, and although no single intervention can definitively solve growing problems, numerous actions can be taken on many fronts to improve water security.

Nature-Based Resilience: Experiences of Five Cities from South Asia.

As in many other parts of the world, the urban areas of the South Asian region are increasingly expanding. While cities today are the heart of commercial, technological and social development, they are also vulnerable to a variety of natural and anthropogenic threats. The complex urban infrastructure, and the ever-expanding population in cities, exacerbate the impacts of climate change and increase the risk of natural hazards. Throughout history, various hydrological disasters including floods, tidal surges, and droughts, and non-hydrological disasters such as earthquakes, landslides, and storms have led to catastrophic social, economic and environmental impacts in numerous South Asian cities. Disaster risk reduction is therefore central to ensure sustainability in urban areas. Although Nature-based Solutions (NbS) are identified as a promising strategy to reduce risk and increase resilience, there appears to be a lack of evidence-based approaches. NbS are measures that can be practiced to obtain benefits of nature for the environmental and community development through conserving, managing, and restoring ecosystems. Against this backdrop, the South Asian cities provide opportunities to evaluate capacities for achieving Nature-based Resilience (NbR) through NbS. This study documents insights from five cities of five different countries of the South Asian region which are subjected to a wide array of disasters: Barishal (Bangladesh), Phuentsholing (Bhutan), Gurugram (India), Kathmandu (Nepal), and Colombo (Sri Lanka). The primary objective of this study is to provide evidence on how NbS are being practiced. Thus, some success stories in cities under consideration are highlighted: restoration of natural canals through integrated development plans and community participation (Barishal), concepts of Gross National Happiness (GNH) and minimal nature interventions (Phuentsholing), “Greening cities’’ including eco-corridors, vegetation belts, biodiversity parks (Gurugram), proper land use planning aims at different disasters (Kathmandu), and wetland restoration and management with multiple benefits (Colombo). These cases could therefore, act as a “proxy” for learning from each other to prepare for and recover from future disasters while building NbR.

Biomedical waste management associated with infectious diseases among health care professionals in apex hospitals of a typical south asian city

Biomedical waste from healthcare activities poses a higher hazard of infection and damage than other types of trash. The main objective of the study was to assess the awareness knowledge and practices of biomedical waste management (BMWM) among health care professionals in the health care units. The cross-sectional study was carried out to access the awareness, knowledge and practices of health care professionals for BMWM. Using a qualitative approach, the study was escorted in two Apex hospitals i.e. the Allied Hospital and the District Head Quarter Hospital, Faisalabad, Pakistan from August 5, 2019 to October 15, 2019. More than 90% of respondents knew the phrase BMWM, but just 35.4% had awareness about biomedical waste regulations. About 71.6% of the respondents were familiar with biomedical waste's color-coding segregation. The study concludes gap in the awareness, knowledge and practices for BMWM. The sanitary workers of the hospitals had no knowledge about BMWM and the BMWM/healthcare waste management rule 2005 established in Pakistan due to the lack of training regarding waste management and the segregation process. Some of the staff members were aware of the BMWM practices under the rules and regulations of Pakistan but were unable to implement at their work place. It is necessary to dispose of the biomedical waste according to the established terms and conditions of BMWM rules (2005) of Pakistan. Weak structure of BMWM was observed at the study sites due to the lack of training, liabilities and absence of penalties against improper biomedical waste disposal as violation of the rules and regulations. It's a dire need of the time to consider the biomedical waste as hazardous waste and make policies for its safe disposal and ensure the implementation of the policies in all the medical centers of Pakistan.

How Asian slum emissions impact local microclimates in polluted air masses

AbstractUrban sprawl comprising densely populated slums over South Asian cities yields copious amounts of soot and black carbon from archaic cooking methods involving cow dung cakes and firewood, which remain afloat for over 10–12 h, enabling them to age in a sulphur rich environment. Not only are there toxicological concerns arising out of improper ventilation mechanisms, but there are also other concerns impacting the local microclimate. These emissions mix with other aerosol particles and, when conditions are favourable, are rendered partially soluble, enabling them to activate into cloud condensation nuclei. This study first yields a quantification of the soluble mass fraction and subsequently shows how aerosols from this local area source mix with background aerosol modes to perturb the local cloud microphysics over Chennai, a megacity in Southern India. On‐site sampling was undertaken to find the mass concentrations of the collected deposits separately from cow dung and firewood fuel. Additional micro‐physical attributes, including the morphological indentations that served as a receptacle to contain the accreted sulphate along with the particle size distribution were ascertained through Scanning Electron Microscopy. It is shown that accreted sulphate on carbonaceous particles facilitates CCN activation over the city. We show through large‐eddy simulations (LES) that extensive slum emissions over the study region contribute to the observed local cloud cover and enhanced rain amounts over a densely built‐up area housing the city's most vulnerable citizens.

Comparison of Ambient Air Quality among Industrial and Residential Areas of a Typical South Asian City

The rapid increase in population growth due to industrialization and urbanization has resulted in air quality deterioration in Pakistan. Consequently, a considerable increase has been seen in the types of sources of air pollutants. However, the air quality of the country has deteriorated in the absence of management capabilities against air quality. Evidence from numerous governmental organizations and international bodies has specified that the environment, health, and quality of life are at high risk due to air pollution. Although the government of Pakistan established the Pakistan Clean Air Program, along with continuous monitoring stations to manage the quality of ambient air, air quality values have not yet been achieved. The present investigations were made in the city of Faisalabad in selected locations. Sampling of a 24 h average was done for selected sites. The air quality parameters such as NO2, SO2, COx, O2, noise level, and suspended particulate matter (SPM) were measured at two locations, i.e., Khurrianwala and Liaqatabad in the Faisalabad District. The measured values of air quality parameters were compared with national environmental quality standards (NEQS). Air pollutants such as SPM, SO2, and noise levels were found to be significantly higher than the 24-h standards of NEQS, which poses harmful effects on the quality of air and health, whereas the O2 concentration was found to be lower than the normal values, and NO2 and COx values were normal. The SO2, CO2, noise level, SPM, and O2 values ranged from 418–652 and 423–661 µg/m3, 3.03–3.44 and 3.08–3.51 mg/m3, 68–73 and 69–75 dB, 555–667 and 581–682 µg/m3, and 19.5–20 and 19.5–20.3 % for summer and winter season, respectively, as compared to standard values (150 µg/m3, 10 mg/m3, 65 dB, 550 µg/m3 and 21%). After the complete analysis of the selected locations, it was concluded that the ambient air quality of this area is severely degraded due to industrial as well as other commercial activities. These significant variations in air quality parameters suggest that there is a need to check the air quality regularly to take appropriate measures for reducing ambient air pollutants, especially in industrial areas as well as commercial areas.

City connectivity via global intra‐firm linkages: An analysis of Indian cities

AbstractThis paper analyses the global connectivity of Indian cities to understand the varying pace of city growth in the context of Indian Urban Development. Using Globalisation and World City (GaWC) network's 2016 data, this paper examines each city's connectivity via their intra‐firm–office transactions. First, Mumbai, New Delhi and Bangalore were identified as the top‐most group strongly linked with the advanced economies in North America and Europe. Second, India's second category cities—Chennai, Calcutta, Hyderabad, Pune and Ahmedabad—had dominant connectedness with South Asian cities growing at a moderate pace. Third, the lowest‐tier cities—Allahabad, Nagpur and Nashik—were fast catching up with their global service activities, demonstrating India's emerging South–South multilateral cooperation. Confirming to the global urban literature, the above pattern reflects those greater intra‐firm linkages that contributed to higher connectivity between cities, being leveraged through the ICT infrastructure growing beyond the primary (X) citiesto engage smart (Y) cities. This finding provides evidence against postcolonial critiques that argued for place‐specific history of colonial cities explaining emerging geographies.

Vertical stratification of aerosols over South Asian cities

This study examines vertically resolved aerosol optical properties retrieved from Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) onboard CALIPSO satellite over several cities across South Asia from March 2010 to February 2021. Atmospheric layer-specific stratification of aerosols and dominant aerosol sub-types was recognized over each city with their seasonal trends. A contrasting pattern in aerosol vertical distribution over cities across Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) was noted compared to non-IGP cities, with considerable dependency on geographic location of the city itself. In all the cases, total extinction decreased with increasing altitude however, with varying degree of slope. A clear intrusion of transported aerosols at higher altitude (>3 km) was also evident. Extinction coefficient of type-separated aerosols indicate robust contribution of smoke aerosols, urban aerosols/polluted dust, and mineral dust below 3 km height. At higher altitude (>3 km), dust and urban aerosols dominate over majority of the stations. Overall, 51% of total columnar aerosols remained within 0–1 km height over South Asian cities, slightly high over the IGP (57%) against non-IGP cities (39%). Such distribution also has a seasonal pattern with higher fraction of aerosols remaining below 1 km during post-monsoon (October–November, 62%) and winter (December–February, 72%) compared to summer months (March–May, 39%). When partitioned against planetary boundary layer (PBL), 41% (59%) of aerosols remained within the PBL (free troposphere) that too exhibiting strong diurnal variations irrespective of seasons. Dominating aerosol types and their contribution to total aerosol loading was explored by comparing type-based aerosol extinction against total aerosol extinction. Dust, smoke and urban aerosols emerged as three predominating aerosol types, while presence of marine aerosol was noted over the coastal cities. Major fraction of smoke and urban aerosols remained within 2 km height from surface. In contrast, efficient transport of dust aerosol above 2 km height was evident particularly over IGP during summer.

Three-dimensional nature of summertime aerosols over South Asia

Three-dimensional (temporal-spatial-vertical) climatology of South Asian summertime (MAMJ, 2010–2019) aerosols and aerosol sub-types was explored using multiple high-resolution satellite-based observations and reanalysis dataset. Vertical stratification of aerosol layer and aerosol sub-types was identified using observation from space-borne lidar. Aerosol optical depth (AOD) was particularly high across the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP; AOD ± SD: 0.56 ± 0.12) and over eastern coast of India (AOD: 0.6–0.8), with prevalence of heterogeneous aerosol sub-types having strong spatial gradient. Clearly, aerosols over north-western arid part were highly absorbing (Ultra-violet Aerosol Index, UVAI > 0.80) and coarse (Ångström exponent, AE < 0.8), with an indication of desert/−mineral dust aerosols. In contrast, fine and moderate to non-absorbing aerosols (UVAI: 0.20–0.50) dominate from central to lower IGP, including in Bangladesh, with signature of anthropogenic emissions. Prevailing aerosols over twelve South Asian cities were classified into six aerosol sub-types constraining their particle size and UV-absorbing potential. Overall, mineral dust, smoke and urban aerosols were the three major aerosol sub-types that prevail across South Asia during summer. In particular, 58–70 % of retrieval days over Karachi and Multan were dust dominated; 57–64 % days were dust or urban aerosols dominated over Lahore, Delhi, Kanpur and Varanasi, and 56–77 % days were smoke or urban aerosols dominated over Dhaka, Kathmandu, Chennai, Mumbai, Colombo and Nagpur. Prevailing aerosols were vertically stratified as 50–70 % of total AOD was retrieved <2 km from the surface except in few cities where 70–80 % of AOD was retrieved <3 km height. Mineral dust and/or urban aerosols emerged as the most abundant aerosol types near the surface (<1 km) in all the cities except in Chennai, with their abundance remained as a function of emission sources and geographical location.

Challenging the Romance of the Techno/Metropolis: The Social Critique of the ‘City’ in Zac O’Yeah’s Crime Trilogy

Following the American discovery of the high concentration of skilled IT professionals in Bengaluru, the Karnataka Government announced its IT policies in the late 1990s which changed the city from a placid ‘pensioners’ paradise’ to the bustling ‘Silicon Valley of India’. With almost an explosion of disruptive changes, the topography and the demography of the city both saw a dramatic transformation. The ‘Mr Majestic Trilogy’ (2012–2017) by Zac O’Yeah is a crime-detection series set in post-millennial Bengaluru. The current paper argues that it is possible to read this crime novel series as a social critique of the changing (social) spaces and interactions in the city, albeit these are represented with humour and light-heartedness in his novels. The paper seeks to read the novels as representing the specificities of the urban experience in this global South Asian city, and as bringing to the fore the dialectics of space and spatiality, especially as it embraces a neoliberal wave of globalisation. It looks at the narratives’ engagement with various aspects of urban experience, including crime and migration, and also investigates the network of relationships that the novels explore in their depiction of the urban/hinterlands duality. For its purposes, the paper borrows insights from theorists of space and urbanity.

Visualizing green space accessibility for more than 4,000 cities across the globe

Green space accessibility has benefits for promoting physical and mental health of urban residents. Many studies have investigated this measure but used limited cities. To fill this gap, this study visualizes green space accessibility for 4353 cities across the globe. Three global open datasets and two different scales (city- and national-scales) were involved for the analysis. We found that most countries and cities have a relative high value in terms of the green space accessibility, and those with a relatively low value are mostly located in South American, African, and Asian countries and cities. The results may be useful not only for local governments to implement precise planning for reducing potential inequality in access to green space, but also for researchers to further investigate the relationship between green space accessibility and various issues related to urban built-up environment.

Identification of Suitable Areas for Concentrated Development in Colombo Municipal Council Area, Using GIS Based Multi-Criteria Evaluation

More than half of the world's population lives in urban areas, which are becoming increasingly congested because of uncontrollable population growth. Zoning is an essential tool in successful urban planning which is a method used to regulate the land use and making concentrated development zones. Defining this concentrated area need to follow some scientific method, because urban areas are connected with complex activity system and different indicators are used to find out those activity systems. Hence different indicators are needed to find the concentrated development zone. GIS based Multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) method can be used to identify the different suitability in urban planning perspective. Colombo is one of the emerging cities in South Asia as well as it is the commercial capital of Sri Lanka. Even though there are under- utilized lands available, it is difficult to get the highest and best use from present use. On the other hand, city need to address the demand for commercial and other developments. This study aims to identify most suitable areas for concentrated development within Colombo Municipal Council area. A GIS based multi­criteria analysis was used to identify the most suitable areas for concentrated development with the criteria of Roads, Population density, Building density, Railway stations, Underserved settlement and Sewer network. The outcome shows that several areas within Colombo Municipal Council area have the potential for concentrated development, yet some areas of concentrated development zone does not. Further four criteria were used for urban growth evaluation which includes: Slope, land fertility, distance to urban center, and distance to road. The final suitability map identified four levels for suitability as Very High, High, Moderate and Low. Keywords: Suitability analysis, Multi Criteria Evaluation, Zoning Plan, Concentrated zone

Of Revenue Without Rulers: Public Goods in the Egalitarian Cities of the Indus Civilization

The archaeology of collective action addresses a widespread myth about the past–that premodern societies were despotic, and only produced public goods when everyday people convinced a separate and distinct ruling class to provide them. Archaeological evidence from the Indus civilization (~2600–1900 BC), home to the first cities in South Asia, reveals that Indus cities engaged in a remarkably egalitarian form of governance to coordinate different social groups, mobilize labor, and engage in collective action, thus producing a wide range of public goods. These public goods included, but were not limited to, water infrastructure, large public buildings, and urban planning–all of which helped Indus cities invent new technologies, grow, and thrive. Many intersecting institutions contributed to Indus governance, including civic bureaucracies that gathered the revenue necessary to mobilize labor in pursuit of collective aims, as well as guild-like organizations that coordinated the activities of numerous everyday communities and ensured the equitable distribution of information within Indus cities. A wide range of large and small public buildings, information technologies, and protocols for standardized craft production and construction attest to this egalitarian governance. Through these institutions, Indus governance incorporated the “voice” of everyday people, a feature of what Blanton and colleagues have described as good governance in the past, in absence of an elite class who could be meaningfully conceptualized as rulers.