Life Circumstances Research Articles

Intolerance of uncertainty and internet addiction among college students in China post-pandemic era: the mediating role of future anxiety

Due to the repeated changes in the COVID-19 pandemic, we live in an era of various uncertainties that raise future anxiety and behavioral addiction problems. According to the Protection Motivation Theory (PMT), the present study attempted to explore the impact of COVID-19 intolerance of uncertainty (COVID-19 IU) on internet addiction (IA) among college students and the mediating role of future anxiety (FA) by constructing a mediating model. A questionnaire survey was conducted on 679 Chinese college students and PROCESS 3.5 was utilized to test the hypotheses. The results indicated that the COVID-19 IU was significantly positively correlated with IA and FA, and FA was significantly positively correlated with IA. COVID-19 IU had a significant positive predictive effect on IA; FA played a complementary partial mediating role between COVID-19 IU and IA. The results supported the PMT, which not only enriched our understanding of FA under uncertain life circumstances, but also deepened our understanding of the potential mechanisms of the effects of IA. Finally, discussions and suggestions were presented based on the results.

Analysis and comparison of tooth wear in late antiquity and early middle age in populations that lived in continental and coastal Croatia using digitized VistaMetrix method.

Tooth wear is a non-pathological loss of hard tissues on the incisal and occlusal tooth surface. In archaeology, the loss of dental tissue through attrition is associated with living opportunities and habits, availability, characteristics and methods of food preparation. In forensics, tooth wear is used to estimate the dental age on cadavers. For this study, we used an archaeological sample from two sample collections. In this study, tooth wear was compared in archaeological samples of well-preserved maxilla and mandible specimens (n=392) from Croatian coastal and continental populations from Late Antiquity (LA) and the Early Middle Ages (EMA). The computer system VistaMetrix 1.38 was used to analyse the abrasion and attrition of hard dental tissues. The Shapiro-Wilk and chi-square tests were performed for categorical data to test the difference between two historical periods and two geographical locations, while the Kruskal-Wallis test was performed for continuous data. There was a statistically significant difference in the proportion of tooth wear in total teeth area (P < 0.001) when comparing continental and coastal Croatia in LA and coastal Croatia between LA and EMA (P = 0.006 and P < 0.001, respectively). Samples from coastal Croatia from the LA period had the lowest percentage of tooth wear with a median of 8.35%, while samples from coastal Croatia from the EMA had the highest percentage of tooth wear with a median of 18.26%. Our results generally show greater tooth wear in the EMA period in male subjects. The results of the tooth wear research obtained with the Vista Metrix software can contribute to the study of life circumstances and changes that the analysed population has experienced in its historical development.

A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Behavioral Activation Intervention to Increase Engagement with Life and Well-Being in Older Adults

Introduction: Engagement with life is central to aging well. There is currently a lack of flexible programs for promoting engagement that tailor to the unique interests, capacities, and life circumstances of individuals. We designed and evaluated a new program for promoting engagement with later life based on principles of behavioral activation. Methods: A total of 135 adults aged 65 years and older who scored at or below the median on the Life Engagement Test were randomly assigned to either a 6-week behavioral activation program (n = 69) or a 6-week well-being program based on brief positive psychology interventions (the active control; n = 66). Participants completed assessments at baseline, 1-week follow-up, and 3-month follow-up. The primary outcome was engagement with life, and secondary outcome measures included social network characteristics, measures of mental health, well-being, and psychological and self-regulatory resources. Results: Participants in both conditions showed improvements in engagement with life post-intervention that were sustained at 3 months. Post-intervention improvements in both conditions were observed across most secondary outcomes; however, for several outcomes, participants with more limited functional and cognitive resources benefitted from participation in the positive psychology (active control) condition, but not the treatment condition. Conclusion: Similar levels of improvement in engagement with life and well-being were evident for participants who completed a behavioral activation-focused intervention, compared with participants who completed a positive psychology-focused intervention. The positive psychology approach may confer greater benefits for emotional well-being among those with poorer functional and cognitive abilities.

Clinical characteristics and functioning of adults with bipolar I disorder: Evidence from the mental and substance use disorders prevalence study

BackgroundKnowledge of clinical, treatment and life circumstances of individuals with bipolar I disorder (BP-I) in US households is informed by decades old epidemiological surveys. MethodsThe Mental and Substance Use Disorders Prevalence Study was conducted October 2020–October 2022. Clinicians administered the Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM-5 diagnosing 12-month prevalence of BP-I and other mental health disorders (MHD) among 4764 adults aged 18–65 years and collected sociodemographic information. We examined clinical characteristics, differences by sex and age among adults with BP-I, and compared adults with BP-I versus no MHD regarding sociodemographic characteristics, functioning, and substance use disorders (SUDs). ResultsPrevalence of BP-I in the MDPS was 1.5 %. Among those with BP-I, 73.4 % had comorbid psychiatric disorders, and 43.4 % had comorbid SUDs. Alcohol use disorder was higher in those with BP-I versus no MHD (33.0 % vs. 6.3 %). Mean Global Assessment of Functioning scores were lower among those with BP-I versus no MHD (53.2 vs. 77.0). Of individuals with BP-I, 64.9 % had past-year outpatient, 5.4 % inpatient, and 18.7 % minimally adequate treatment (≥1 antimanic agent and ≥ 4 outpatient visits). Individuals with BP-I were less likely to be employed (37.3 % vs. 63.0 %) and have a family income ≥$20,000 (48.2 % vs. 81.9 %) versus no MDPS MHD. LimitationsThe survey response rate was low. ConclusionsIn this sample, many individuals with BP-I had psychiatric and SUD comorbidities, lived in poverty and had functional impairment. Few received adequate treatment; women and younger individuals were particularly disadvantaged. Early detection and treatment represent substantial opportunities to improve outcomes.

Exploring the Impact of Metaphors on Resilience in Art Therapy Using Mixed Methods

ABSTRACT The use of metaphors in art making for individuals experiencing chronic stress or trauma can enhance their psychological resilience. This study explored the therapeutic value of metaphors in improving resilience among distressed individuals in art therapy using mixed methods. Six female university students with a history of highly stressful or traumatic events participated in a two-week online painting program, creating either metaphorical or non-metaphorical paintings. Pre and post-treatment questionnaires assessed resilience factors, including global resilience, self-awareness, self-efficacy, and communication skills. Post-treatment interviews were conducted to explore subjective changes in resilience. The interviews revealed several themes, including greater affect recognition, acceptance of life circumstances, and a more remarkable ability to redefine their lives. Although questionnaire scores showed no significant increases in resilience during the intervention, the results suggest that metaphors can facilitate resilience-building mechanisms in art therapy.

'Of course you crash' Parenting a young child with neurodevelopmental difficulties

BackgroundParents of children with neurodevelopmental disorders often experience heightened levels of parenting stress and diminished well-being. However, less is known about the well-being of parents whose children exhibit symptoms of neurodevelopmental disorders without yet having a formal diagnosis. AimThis study aims to deepen our understanding of the need for support among families with young children with neurodevelopmental difficulties. Specifically, it explores parents’ perspectives concerning their children, life circumstances, and emotional experiences in parenting. Methods and proceduresQualitative semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten parents of children aged 2.5–5 years, referred to a child psychologist due to reported neurodevelopmental difficulties. The interviews were transcribed and analysed using qualitative content analysis. Outcomes and resultsTwo themes, each containing four and three categories, respectively, emerged in the analysis: Parenting our child with neurodevelopmental difficulties is tough in so many ways and Prevent, manage and make up like a Pro. Conclusion and implicationsThe parents express very similar challenges, difficulties and problems as parents of children with diagnosed neurodevelopmental disorders. The main difference lies in the lack of accessible support or help for these parents. What this paper addsThis study provides insights into how parents of children with suspected neurodevelopmental difficulties perceive their child and their overall life circumstances. The narratives show the challenges these parents face due to their children's multifaceted difficulties, leading to a need for multi-disciplinary support from professionals. The narratives also illustrate the strong emotions that arise in parenting, which in itself indicates a need for support. The study also provides further support for the importance of parents connecting with others facing similar life circumstances. The families often feel isolated despite the need for increased informal support in terms of more adults being involved with the children.

The quest for genuine self-knowledge: An investigation into individual differences in the self-insight motive

The self-insight motive (SIM; also known under the label self-assessment motive) describes the dispositional tendency to strive for accurate self-knowledge. The current research includes five multimethodological studies (total N = 3667) that comprehensively investigated the SIM’s nomological network, its antecedents, and cognitive-behavioral consequences, comprising longitudinal, round-robin, and population-representative data. Among the personality correlates of the SIM were curiosity, the intimacy and self-improvement motives, private self-consciousness, narcissistic admiration, and openness to experience. Further, the SIM was more pronounced among younger and highly educated people. A key environmental antecedent of the SIM was the instability of life circumstances, in the sense that the motive became stronger after life circumstances had changed. Concerning the cognitive-behavioral consequences, the results suggest that the SIM fosters feedback-seeking behavior. Nevertheless, the motive was not linked to more accurate self-perception across three studies. We discuss several reasons for this unexpected finding.

Friendship Social Support Networks of African Americans

ABSTRACT Friends are crucial for companionship, sharing personal thoughts and feelings, and are positively associated with psychological well-being and mental health. This is one of the first studies to provide an in-depth investigation of social support networks of African American friendship. Using a nationally representative sample of African American adults drawn from the National Survey of American Life, this study investigated sociodemographic correlates, as well as expanded information on marital status and life circumstances of friendships. Additionally, we examined the interrelationships among several aspects of friendship. The findings indicate that, apart from income and region, all other correlates (i.e. age, gender, education, marital status, material hardship, military service, incarceration history, parental status, and urbanicity) were significantly associated with involvement in friendship support networks (i.e. subjective friendship closeness, frequency of contact with friends, frequency of receiving support from friends, and frequency of providing support to friends). Moreover, subjective closeness to friends was positively associated with friend contact, and both subjective closeness to and contact with friends were positively associated with supportive exchanges with friends. These findings indicate the importance of understanding the life circumstances and contexts within which friendships occur and the need for much more quantitative and qualitative research on African American friendships.

FROM REFLECTION TO SOCIAL CHANGE: TRAINING IN DEVELOPING GENDER COMPETENCE FOR SOCIAL WORKERS

Training social workers with a focus on gender competence is regarded as a key element of contemporary social work, grounded in the principles of social justice. Taking this into account, we have developed an educational concept for a training program aimed at developing the gender competence of social workers providing services to families in difficult life circumstances, based on the theoretical foundations of transformative social work practice and feminist approach. Key components of the training that contribute to achieving the learning objectives include interactive exercises, role-playing games, and guided fantasy, allowing participants to immerse themselves not only theoretically but also emotionally in the issues of gender stereotypes and discrimination. The use of such methods promotes the development of critical thinking, increases awareness of personal biases and stereotypes, and stimulates a desire to change social norms and practices towards greater gender equality. Integration of gender issues into non-formal education curricula for social workers, the implementation of reflective training based on interactive methods and participants' reflection on their own experiences, contribute to a deeper understanding and practical application of this knowledge in working with vulnerable groups. This not only promotes the personal development of professionals but also leads to positive social changes, improving the quality and effectiveness of the services provided. Further research is needed to explore the long-term impact of gender-oriented training on the professional activities of social workers. It is important to explore how changes in gender consciousness and the development of gender competence affect the quality and effectiveness of social services provided.

Longitudinal evidence of the influence of early life circumstances, family characteristics, social ties and psychological distress on healthy behaviours ofBrazilian adults: The Pro-Saude cohort study.

This study examined the influence of early life circumstances, family characteristics, social ties and psychological distress in adulthood on adult's health-related behaviours. A cohort study (Pro-Saúde Study) involving technical and administrative civil servants at university campuses in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil was conducted in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Data from 2155 adults were collected at baseline (1999) and after a 13-year period (2012-13). Family characteristics at 12 years of age were assessed retrospectively in 1999. Gender, marital status, living situation, social support, social networks of relatives and psychological distress were also measured in 1999. Data collection in 2012-13 included information about marital status, social networks of relatives, cigarette smoking, fruit and vegetable consumption and physical exercise. A conceptual model testing the relationships between variables was assessed through structural equation modelling. Female gender (β = 0.043), better social networks of relatives in 1999 (β = 0.053) and 2012-13 (β = 0.069) and low psychological distress (β = -0.048) directly predicted less smoking. Better social networks of relatives in 2012-13 was directly linked to higher consumption of fruits (β = 0.045) and vegetables (β = 0.051) and being physically active (β = 0.070). Low psychological distress directly predicted higher fruit consumption (β = -0.040). Family characteristics at 12 years-old, marital status and living with other people were linked indirectly with health behaviours through social networks, social support and psychological distress. Adults with better early life family and social circumstances, and those who were married reported positive health behaviours through indirect pathways. Stronger social ties and lower psychological distress represented the pathways by which early life circumstances and relationship status influenced positive health behaviours.

Psychometric Properties and Factorial Structure of General Mattering Scale, Anti-Mattering Scale, and Fear of Not Mattering Inventory Within the Palestinian Context

The current study examined the psychometric properties and correlates of three measures assessing individual differences in mattering among people from Palestine assessed in January, 2024. This study uniquely considers mattering as a resource and feelings of not mattering as a risk factor among people experiencing traumatizing life circumstances. Our sample consisted of 950 Palestinian adults (305 men and 645 women). They completed the General Mattering Scale, the Anti-Mattering Scale, the Fear of Not Mattering Inventory, and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21 (DASS-21). Extensive psychometric tests supported these measures as each having one factor with adequate reliability and validity. Examination of means indicated significantly elevated levels of fear of not mattering, anxiety, depression, and stress. Regression analyses further established that each measure predicted significant unique variance in anxiety, depression, and stress. The findings attest to the further use of these measures and how feelings of mattering can be vital resource as the need for resilience and adaptability escalates due to traumatizing events.

‘Not taking medications and taking medication, it was the same thing:’ perspectives of antiretroviral therapy among people hospitalised with advanced HIV disease

BackgroundDespite HIV's evolution to a chronic disease, the burden of advanced HIV disease (AHD, defined as a CD4 count of < 200 cells/uL or WHO clinical Stage 3 or 4 disease), remains high among People Living with HIV (PLHIV) who have previously been prescribed antiretroviral therapy (ART). As little is known about the experiences of patients hospitalised with AHD, this study sought to discern social forces driving hospitalisation with AHD. Understanding such forces could inform strategies to reduce HIV-related morbidity and mortality.MethodsWe conducted a qualitative study with patients hospitalised with AHD who had a history of poor adherence. Semi-structured interviews were conducted between October 1 and November 30, 2023. The Patient Health Engagement and socio-ecological theoretical models were used to guide a thematic analysis of interview transcripts.ResultsTwenty individuals participated in the research. Most reported repeated periods of disengagement with HIV services. The major themes identified as driving disengagement included: 1) feeling physically well; 2) life circumstances and relationships; and 3) health system factors, such as clinic staff attitudes and a perceived lack of flexible care. Re-engagement with care was often driven by new physical symptoms but was mediated through life circumstances/relationships and aspects of the health care system.ConclusionsCurrent practices fail to address the challenges to lifelong engagement in HIV care. A bold strategy for holistic care which involves people living with advanced HIV as active members of the health care team (i.e. ‘PLHIV as Partners’), could contribute to ensuring health care services are compatible with their lives, reducing periods of disengagement from care.

Compassionate nursing in challenging contexts: The importance of judgments.

Nurses' demonstration of compassion is an ethical and often regulatory expectation. While research has been conducted to examine the barriers and facilitators of compassion in nurses, little is known about how nurses develop and express compassion for patients who may be blamed for their health condition. Unvaccinated COVID-19 patients are an example of such patients. How do nurses provide compassionate care for unvaccinated adults infected with COVID-19? How did the context of COVID-19 vaccination in Canada shape nurses' relationships with unvaccinated patients? A generic qualitative approach using interviews to gather data was used. Martha Nussbaum's conceptualization of compassion and its cognitive requirements was employed to add depth to the analysis. Seventeen Registered Nurses, from a range of practice settings, who had cared for unvaccinated patients with COVID-19 participated. Ethics approval was received, and signed informed consent was obtained. Participants who were the current students of the researchers were excluded. Three themes were identified:1) Encountering Extreme Workplace Impediments to Compassion.2) Managing Emotions to Provide "Nonjudgmental Care."3) Practicing Narrative Imagination. The difficult working conditions during the pandemic impeded nurses' capacity to be compassionate. Yet, none judged their patients' suffering as trivial, and all provided necessary nursing care. Some initially blamed these patients for the severity of their illness and suppressed their emotions to provide what they called "nonjudgmental care." Upon reflection, participants recognized that these patients' life circumstances may have been barriers to vaccination which, in the end, facilitated the development of compassion. This research has implications that go beyond that of caring for patients with COVID-19. The ideal of "nonjudgmental care" requires critical re-examination because judgments and emotions are required for compassion.

From exclusion to inclusion: unveiling the macro and micro dynamics of second chance education

Second Chance Schools (SCSs) are innovative institutions located worldwide, including Greece, that allow adults who haven’t completed compulsory education to reintegrate into educational systems. This study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the benefits and challenges associated with second chance education. Conducted in SCSs within the Central Macedonia region of Greece, the research involved seven school units, with a total of 21 interviews—three from each unit. The study utilised an Interview Guide, and data from semi-structured interviews were analysed using Atlas TI Software. The thematic content analysis resulted in 127 codes grouped into six broader categories. The findings highlight the transformative potential of Second Chance Education on both micro and macro levels. The study emphasises SCE’s profound impact on mental health and self-esteem at the micro level, revealing numerous benefits for individual students. On the macro level, the investigation expands to consider school-wide and broader life circumstances, shedding light on the multifaceted aspects influencing participation, motivation, and outcomes in the context of lifelong learning.

Young people returning to alcohol and other drug services as incremental treatment

Young people who attend intensive alcohol and other drug (AoD) treatment commonly do so more than once. This paper aims to understand precipitators, enablers and barriers to young people's re-engagement in programs. Data come from a longitudinal qualitative study involving three waves of interviews with Australian young people recruited while attending intensive AoD programs (n = 38 at wave 1).We found that young people's ambitions for what they might achieve with a new stay and capacity to benefit from programs, evolved. Skills learnt in earlier stays or changed life circumstances often helped them achieve better outcomes subsequently. Ongoing contact with an AoD worker was the most important enabler to service re-engagement.Across the span of a year, we saw most young people in our study sample develop a stronger sense of wellbeing and control over substance use. While researchers tend to focus on evaluating outcomes associated with single stays at specific programs, young people think about their trajectories towards managing substance use and their lives as occurring more holistically, supported by engagements with a range of services. We argue that the notion of incremental treatment is useful in depicting the synergistic effects of service engagement over time.

Gendered pleasures, risks and policies: Using a logic of candidacy to explore paradoxical roles of alcohol as a good/poor health behaviour for Australian women early during the pandemic

Drinking alcohol facilitates pleasure for women while also elevating disease risk. Symbolic expectations of what alcohol ‘does in’ life per lay insight (relax, identity-work, connect) sit in tension with scientific realities about what alcohol ‘does to’ women's bodies (elevate chronic disease risks such as breast cancer). Policy must work amidst – and despite – these paradoxes to reduce harm(s) to women by attending to the gendered and emergent configurations of both realities.This paper applies a logic of candidacy to explore women's alcohol consumption and pleasure through candidacies of wellness in addition to risk through candidacies of disease (e.g. breast cancer). Using qualitative data collected via 56 interviews with Australian women (n = 48) during early pandemic countermeasures, we explore how risk perceptions attached to alcohol (like breast cancer) co-exist with use-values of alcohol in daily life and elucidate alcohol's paradoxical role in women's heuristics of good/poor health behaviours.Women were aged 25–64 years, experienced varying life circumstances (per a multidimensional measure of social class including economic, social and cultural capital) and living conditions (i.e. partnered/single, un/employed, children/no children). We collated coding structures from data within both projects; used deductive inferences to understand alcohol's paradoxical role in candidacies of wellness and disease; abductively explored women's prioritisation of co-existing candidacies during the pandemic; and retroductively theorised prioritisations per evolving pandemic-inflected constructions of alcohol-related gendered risk/s and pleasure/s.Our analysis illuminates the ways alcohol was configured as a pleasure and form of wellness in relation to stress, productivity and respectability. It also demonstrates how gender was relationally enacted amidst the priorities, discourses and materialities enfolding women's lives during the pandemic. We consider the impact of policy regulation of aggressive alcohol marketing and banal availability of alcohol in pandemic environments and outline gender-responsive, multi-level policy options to reduce alcohol harms to women.

Employment of Specially-Abled People in the Hotel Industry—An Indian perspective

Abstract A person with a disability implies a personage with a defined impairment of not less than 40% as per the Gazzette of India. Disability is a collective term that covers (1) impairments (a body function or structure problem), (2) limitations on the operation (related to difficulties in performing a task or action), and (3) constraints on participation (an issue found in life circumstances involvement); The International Classification for Functioning (ICF) definition of disability that states “disability is caused by a complex relationship between body structures, functions and impairments, reflecting the circumstances in which a person lives” will be used. Research conducted by the American India Foundation (AIF) identified different career opportunities for specially-abled persons in India, including examples from the hotel and catering industries. The present scenario of specially-abled people in the Indian hotel industry was explored to understand the opportunities and hindrances in the process and how they can be resolved to increase their employment for a dignified life and an inclusive Indian society as a presumed national goal by the NITI Aayog. This study connects the demand for a competent workforce in the Indian hotel sector with the employment needs of specially-abled people.

A realist review of the causes of, and current interventions to address 'missingness' in health care.

This protocol describes a realist review exploring the problem of "missingness" in healthcare, defined as the repeated tendency not to take up offers of care that has a negative impact on the person and their life chances. More specifically, the review looks at the phenomenon of patients missing multiple appointments in primary care in the UK - at the causal factors that influence how patients come to be "missing" in this way, and what interventions might support uptake and "presence" in healthcare. Background research informing this project suggests that a high rate of missed appointments predicted high premature death rates, and patients were more likely to have multiple long-term health conditions and experience significant socioeconomic disadvantage. Most research in this field focuses on population- or service-level characteristics of patients who miss appointments, often making no distinction between causes of single missed appointments and of multiple missed appointments. There have therefore been no interventions for 'missingness', accounting for the complex life circumstances or common mechanisms that cause people to repeatedly miss appointments. We use a realist review approach to explore what causes missingness - and what might prevent or address it - for whom, and in what circumstances. The review uses an iterative approach of database searching, citation-tracking and sourcing grey literature, with selected articles providing insight into the causal dynamics underpinning missed appointments and the interventions designed to address them. The findings of this review will be combined with the findings of a qualitative empirical study and the contributions of a Stakeholder Advisory Group (STAG) to inform the development of a programme theory that seeks to explain how missingness occurs, whom it affects and under what circumstances. This will be used to develop a complex intervention to address multiple missed appointments in primary care. CRD42022346006.

Neuropsychological Cognition and Attitude Towards Mathematics as Predictors of Resilience among Mathematics Pre-service Teachers

Resilience is a constructive cognitive capacity that is susceptible to enhancement. It involves the intricate journey and outcome of an individual effectively adapting to arduous or demanding life circumstances, primarily through behavioral, emotional, and cognitive adaptability and accommodation to pressures originating internally and externally. The resilience of an individual plays a pivotal role in achieving professional accomplishments as it impacts aspects such as job opportunities, advancement in the workplace, and overall prospects for career growth. The main purpose of the study is to identify the variable among neuropsychological cognition and attitude towards mathematics that best predicts resilience of mathematics pre-service teachers, who are enrolled within the academic year 2023-2024 at Agusan del Sur State College of Agriculture and Technology. The findings indicate a noteworthy positive association between Neuropsychological Cognition and Attitude Towards Mathematics with Resilience. Additionally, Neuropsychological Cognition emerges as the most reliable predictor of resilience among pre-service Mathematics teachers.

MAN AND WOMAN - A CREATION FOR RELATION IN AUSTEN’S NOVELS

Jane Austen as a realist writer put genuine efforts to connect her characters with real life situations and circumstances to establish her as recognised socially realistic author. The selected novels of this chapter - Pride and Prejudice, Sense and Sensibility, Emma, Northanger Abbey, Persuasion, &amp; Mansfield Park – are clear representation of real social lives of early 19th century. However, the representations are so knitted that it provides a bliss of reading romantic comedies. The romance, the love affairs, the restrictions for expressing love, expressions of male chauvinism or chivalry, good fortune, decent suitors, maintenance of dignity by the lady, are some of the keys induced by Jane Austen in all her narrations. The purpose remains static and it is make to feel the personal, emotional and social lives of the characters. It is like living the age with the characters and having bonds with their emotional experiences. This is a narrative technique of Jane Austen that makes her novels not only romantically successful, but also identified as socially real entities.